In this chapter students will learn:

• about the nature and scope of anthropology, including its use as a lens or framework, its major branches and subfileds, and the anthropological perspective.
• about the two key themes in this book: (1) anthropology and food, and (2) anthropology and sustainability.
• what it means to be human, and about the nature of culture, with particular attention given to its definition, components, interconnectedness, and ever-changing dynamic.
• why anthropology has broad appeal.
• about the history of anthropology in North America.
• about the contemporary challenges of anthropology.
• how anthropology is situated within the contexts of academia, the business world, and popular culture.
• how anthropology is important in an increasingly connected world.

Introduction

It is important to have a framework for understanding things. Frameworks help people organize thoughts and work toward explanations. Frameworks include principles, methods, theories, and knowledge. There are many frameworks. Anthropology is one.

The Appeal of Anthropology

Anthrology appeals to different people for different reasons. For many people, it is the subject matter (i.e., humans) that makes anthropology interesting.

Defining Anthropology, Defining Human, and Defining Culture

Anthropology is the study of humans. “Human” is usually equated with the genus Homo or biological family Homininae. ”Culture” is the learned and shared things that people think, do, and have, as members of a society.

The Four Fields and Applied Anthropology

The four fields of anthropology are cultural anthropology, biological anthropology, archaeology, and linguistic anthropology. Each has an applied component.

The Anthropological Perspective

Key elements of the anthropological perspective include being holistic, evolutionary, comparative, qualitative, focused on linkages, focused on change, and based on fieldwork.

History of Anthropology, Mostly in North America

Anthropology emerged globally, including in North America, as an academic discipline in the 1800s. The history of anthropology, until the late 1900s, was intricately linked with the Indigenous peoples of the continent. Key early anthropologists in North America include Franz Boas, Alfred Kroeber, and Julian Steward. Anthropology continues to grow in numbers, diversity, and interests.

Anthropology, Colonialism, and Decolonization

Anthropologists have been described as agents of colonialism, but many anthropologists now support the dismantling of the systematic oppression of Indigenous peoples, through a process known as deconlonization.

Situating Anthropology

Anthropology can be considered in multiple contexts. These include the academic world, the business world, and popular culture.

The Importance of Anthropology in an Increasingly Connected World

Anthropologists can make important contributions to (1) helping people suffering from epidemics, natural disasters, and conflict, and (2) research and planning for sustainability, climate change, food security and space exploration.

1. How do anthropologists define anthropology, human, and culture?

2. What is the appeal of anthropology?

3. What are the main components of culture?

4. What are the key elements of the anthropological perspective?

5. What are the main branches of anthropology?

6. What is the history of anthropology in North America?

7. What are the contemporary challenges facing anthropologists?

8. How is anthropology situated in the contexts of academia, the business world, and popular culture?

9. Why is anthropology important in an increasingly connected world?

1. What might be some of the advantages of using an anthropological perspective to view and understand the world?

2. What might be some of the disadvantages of using an anthropological perspective to view and understand the world?

3. Should anthropologists be considered "essential workers"?

4. How has anthropology b een complicit in perpetuating colonialism and its enduring legacy of oppression?

agriculture a farming technique that can support a large population, using advanced tools and irrigation, and requiring more preparation and maintenance of the soil; also known as intensive cultivation

anthropological perspective evolutionary, holistic, and comparative methods applied to the study of humans

anthropology the study of human biology and culture, past and present, through evolutionary, holistic, and comparative perspectives

applied anthropology a field of anthropology in which the researcher uses knowledge of anthropological methods, theory, and perspectives to solve human problems

archaeological site any location where there is physical evidence of past human activity

archaeology the study of humans through the remains of their physical activities

artifact any portable object showing evidence of being made or used by people

biological anthropology the branch of anthropology focusing on human biology, including evolution and contemporary variability

bipedalism moving mostly by using two legs

Black Lives Matter a movement that began in 2013 as a grassroots activist campaign to make visible the experiences of Black Americans subjected to police brutality; has since grown into a global movement that seeks to confront and end systematic racism and violence against Black people

Cahokia a World Heritage Site near St. Louis, Missouri

Cercopithecoidea a primate superfamily, including the Old World monkeys

colonialism the domination and subjugation of Indigenous peoples by Europeans and their descendants

commercial archaeology see cultural resource management

COVID-19 the acronym given to the disease caused by a new coronavirus first identified in 2019; COVID-19 created a global pandemic

cultural anthropology the branch of anthropology focusing on contemporary cultures

cultural appropriation the use of an element of a minority or oppressed culture by a dominant culture, in an inappropriate context, such as the way in which Euro-Americans use elements of Native American culture for fashion, logos, and mascots

cultural relativism the idea that all cultures are equally valid, and that every culture can be understood only in its own context

cultural resource management doing archaeology in advance of development projects; often abbreviated as CRM and also known as commercial archaeology

ergonomics the science of designing things so they create little or no physical stress on the human body

ethnographic research the process of studying culture, undertaken in a field setting

ethnography the written or visual product of ethnographic (field) research

food security the availability of and access to safe and nutritious food

foraging utilization of food resources available in the environment; also known as food foraging or hunting and gathering

historical particularism the notion that each culture is a product of its own unique history, and that there are several ways of successfully adapting

holistic viewing all aspects of biology and/or culture as being interrelated

Homininae the biological family to which humans belong; some also consider Homininae to include gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos

Homo sapiens the genus and species to which humans today belong

horticulture land cultivation in small-scale farms or gardens

human at a minimum, Homo sapiens, although most anthropologists define it as any member of the genus Homo or biological family Homininae

ideology refers to beliefs and values, including religion

Indigenous people who can trace their ancestry in an area into the distant past; Indigenous peoples in North America include Native Americans, First Nations, Indians, and Inuit

lens of anthropology a particular way to view the world, through the perspectives, ideas, methods, theories, ethics, and research results of anthropology

linguistic anthropology the branch of anthropology focusing on human languages

#MeToo social movement that began in 2006 with activist Tarana Burke, who wished to draw attention to and assist women of color who had been sexually assaulted; the movement has since become international, inspiring women of all walks of life to come forward with their stories of sexual harassment and assault

palaeoanthropology the study of early humans, using both archaeology and biological anthropology

participant observation a research method used in anthropology in which an ethnographer lives with a group of people and observes their regular activities

pastoralism a way of life that revolves around domesticating animals and herding them to pasture

physical anthropology see biological anthropology

popular culture mainstream culture in a society, including mass media, television, music, art, movies, and books

prehistory the time before written records were kept in an area

primate one of the taxonomic orders of the class Mammalia

primatology the study of primates, usually in the wild, using the framework of anthropology

qualitative a term used to describe the research strategy or perspective of anthropologists focusing on observations, actions, symbols, interviews, and words to gather data

quantitative a term used to describe the research strategy or perspective focusing on methods designed to produce data in the form of numbers

race a term used to describe varieties or subspecies of a species; inaccurately used to refer to human differences

salvage ethnography doing ethnography with a sense of urgency to record cultures, based on the assumption that the cultures are rapidly disappearing

science a framework for investigating and understanding things, including a specific set of principles and methods

subsistence food procurement; basic food needs for survival

technology the tools, skills and knowledge used by people to survive

Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) the collective and cumulative knowledge that a group of people has gained over many generations living in their particular ecosystem

Traditional Use Studies (TUS) anthropological studies focusing on the ways in which Indigenous people have used their lands and resources and continue to do so

unilinear theory an evolutionary model that proposed societies progressed from savagery through barbarism and then to civilization; now entirely discredited

World Heritage a site of outstanding heritage value, designated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

Hammond, J. D., Brummel, J., Buckingham, C., Dolan, D., Irish, L., Menzel, E., & Noard, C. (2009). Interrogating cultural anthropology text covers: Intended messages, received meanings. Visual Anthropology Review 25(2): 150-171.

Starn, O. (2011). Here come the anthros (again): The strange marriage of anthropology and native America. Cultural Anthropology 26(2): 179-204.

Thomas, D. C., Liao, Y., Aycan, Z., Cerdin, J., Pekerti, A. A., Ravlin, E. C., Vijver, F. V. (2015). Cultural intelligence: A theory-based, short form measure. Journal of International Business Studies, 46(9): 1099-1118. doi:10.1057/jibs.2014.67

American Anthropological Association
aaanet.org

American Association of Physical Anthropologists
physanth.org

Canadian Anthropology Society (CASCA)
cas-sca.ca

Canadian Archaeology Association
canadianarchaeology.com

Canadian Association for Physical Anthropology
capa-acap.net

Society for American Archaeology
saa.org

Society for Applied Anthropology (SfAA)
sfaa.net

Society for Cultural Anthropology
culanth.org

Society for Linguistic Anthropology
linguisticanthropology.org

1. Describe how applied anthropology can be a part of each of the main four subfields of anthropology.

2. What are the primary objectives of cultural anthropologists, archaeologists, biological anthropologists, and linguistic anthropologists? How do these goals help them contribute to discussions concerning sustainability, food security, and other issues of an increasingly connected world?

3. What relationship did early North American anthropologists have with Indigenous peoples? Has this changed over time?

4. Why is anthropology uniquely situated as a valuable field of study on sustainability issues?

5. How can you define human? What are some of the different ways anthropologists might classify or define human?

6. How can you define culture? What are some of the different ways anthropologists might classify or define culture?

7. How does an anthropologist go about creating an ethnography?

8. What are some different key perspectives and how do they contribute to a holistic anthropological framework?

9. What are some of the key events in the history of the anthropological discipline? Who are some of the key figures in the creation of anthropology?

10. Contrast the difference between the unilinear theory of cultural evolution by Lewis Henry Morgan and the theories that Franz Boas put forth.

11. What subfield of anthropology is most often found in popular culture, and how is it represented? How does this compare with real-life examples of where anthropologists are employed or conduct research?

Answers

1. Answers should include reference to each of the specific four subfields—cultural anthropology, archaeology, biological anthropology, and linguistic anthropology—drawing on examples in the text. For example,

• Cultural anthropologists apply their work through academia, but also in business, government (including the military), and not-for-profits (e.g., Indigenous groups). Archaeologists work in non-academic arenas and with Indigenous groups regarding land claims and knowledge.
• Biological anthropologists provide valuable knowledge about ecosystems and biological systems, and their diversity.
• Linguists work with Indigenous groups and not-for-profits to draw attention to rapidly disappearing languages of the world.
• Overall, applied anthropology recognizes the value of diversity (cultural and biological) in sustaining our species with contemporary and real-world applications.
• Anthropologists often work with the most marginalized and oppressed peoples in the world and can draw attention to their conditions.

See pages 7–12 of your text.

2. Answers should include specific reference to each subfield, but ideally also note how a holistic perspective is useful.

• Cultural anthropologists seek to explain elements of cultures in the present and recent past by immersing themselves in cultures. This enables a more comprehensive understanding of how various communities around the world deal with food scarcity, security, changing environments, and more.
• Archaeologists aim to describe the human past, explain the human past, and document the rapidly disappearing physical record of the human past. By understanding how past societies succeeded (or failed), they can provide solutions for comparable contemporary dilemmas.
• Biological anthropologists use human biology (past and present) to better understand evolution and variability. By appreciating the diversity of life on this planet, biological approaches provide valuable perspectives about long-term issues, such as food systems, that will affect many future generations and environments.
• Linguistic anthropologists classify languages and seek to understand how language changes and is influenced by culture. This can help foster communication regarding sensitive and complex topics such as climate change, as well as aid in understanding why and how people discuss things in particular ways.

See pages 7–12 of your text.

3. Answers should include details explaining the significant shift (from exploitive to collaborative) that has taken place over time.

• Europeans were intensely interested in cultural diversity around the world, and contact with the Indigenous peoples in North America acted as a catalyst for the formation of anthropology as a formal discipline and early theories.
• Colonial practices and perspectives led to rapidly changing and disappearing Indigenous traditions and lifeways, which early anthropologists wanted to record and document
• However, this kind of collecting (with millions of objects, including human skeletons, ending up in museums) was exploitative, as it was often unpaid or occurred without full consent of Indigenous peoples.
• Thus, Indigenous peoples were viewed more as objects to study and catalogue (as critiqued by Indigenous author Vine Deloria, Jr., for example).
• For much of anthropology’s history, its practitioners have mostly been white males, with little diversity. Lately there has been a shift to more diversity, and the field now also includes Indigenous anthropologists.
• Today, research conducted on Indigenous issues is likely to relate to cultural appropriation, stereotyping, and similar matters, and requires the consent of participants. Work is also conducted on important issues such as Traditional Use Studies (TUS) and Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK).
• Anthropologists are also expected to give back to the communities that they study.

See pages 15–21 of your text.

4. Answers should include:

• Issues of sustainability are increasing in importance, as climate change and detrimental change in other social, environmental, and economic realms increase.
• Anthropology, as a discipline with a holistic framework, is poised to be able to address the complex interconnections of these problems in a globalized world.
• Broad, deep, and long-term understandings of people in their own environments lead to better solutions.
• Anthropology often focuses on marginalized and oppressed peoples, who often have valuable knowledge about the traditional ecosystems in which they live.

See pages 4-5 and 23 of your text.

5. Your own definition should then be followed by the three major classifications described in the text and indicate what would be included within each classification.

• The genus and species Homo sapiens. This categorization would focus solely on modern humans.
• Some broaden it to the beginning of the genus Homo (which includes sapiens and other now extinct species) because of two-million-year-old physical evidence of human culture.
• The biological family Homininae because people equate the beginnings of human with bipedalism, which occurred prior to the development of Homo sapiens.

See pages 8 of your text.

6. Your own definition should then be followed by some of the alternative definitions presented in the text, especially emphasizing the fluidity of the concept.

• The learned and shared things that people think, do, and have as members of society.
• Aspects of ideology and behavior, as well as remnant thoughts and behaviors (i.e., material culture).
• Some other definitions focus on
• the mental templates which govern peoples’ behavior.
• the customs people have.
• Components such as subsistence, diet, technology, communication, settlement patterns, economic systems, social systems, political systems, ideology, arts, and health and healing.
• These components are interrelated and influence each other, as culture is constantly changing.

See pages 8-10 of your text.

7. Your answer should include not only the definition of ethnography but also at least some specifics on the types of fieldwork an anthropologist would conduct to achieve this kind of data.

• An ethnography is a written description of a culture—besides only focusing on a description, anthropologists seek to explain elements of culture.
• Long-term immersion is often called ethnographic research.
• The method whereby one observes and participates in a culture is known as participant observation.
• Holistic and qualitative perspectives are often used for ethnographies because anthropologists may focus on a few individuals (gaining deeper meaning and insight as opposed to trying to research many individuals, for instance through a survey), while understanding some of the many links present when observing culture (and its ever-changing nature).

See pages 8–13 and 15 of your text.

8. Your answer should include reference to the three perspectives described in the text (evolutionary, comparative, and qualitative) while also defining the term holistic.

• All aspects of human biology and culture are interrelated. Thus, for a thorough understanding of any one component of human biology or culture, anthropologists recognize that a full understanding involves studying the links.
• An evolutionary perspective means that a good understanding of biological and cultural traits is best considered in regard to long-term evolutionary changes. Anthropologists use a database that extends millions of years into the past. They understand that changes rarely occur in a vacuum, and while some changes can occur quickly across time and space, it is at least worth considering the record of the past.
• A comparative perspective means that anthropologists often compare things in their research. For biological anthropologists this may mean that when they find an ancient bone that looks like it may be human, they compare it to a known human bone to determine to which species it may best be classified.
• The qualitative perspective means that anthropologists tend to focus on qualitative rather than quantitative research. Rather than have people complete surveys and then quantify the results, for example, anthropologists tend to seek deeper meaning and insight by focusing on fewer individuals for longer periods.
• Focusing on linkages relates to the holistic perspective. Much more so than other disciplines, anthropology tends to focus on the linkages between human biology and culture, the linkages between various parts of the human body, and the linkages between the various components of a culture.

See pages 12-15 of your text.

9. Answers should demonstrate an understanding of the general chronology of events and the people listed below.

• Thomas Jefferson’s excavations of large mounds in the 1700s.
• Development of the Bureau of American Ethnology in the 1800s.
• Lewis Henry Morgan’s development of the unilinear theory of cultural evolution.
• Franz Boas’s notions of cultural relativism, historical particularism, and the four-field approach (including perhaps his role as supervisor to Margaret Mead, one of the first female anthropologists).
• Development of legislation protecting Indigenous heritage sites.
• More recently, a broadening of the themes and a diversification of the professionals within anthropology.

See pages 15-21 of your text.

10. Answers should include:

• Lewis Henry Morgan proposed the unilinear theory of cultural evolution:
• All cultures started as savages, and then progressed through various development stages until they became civilized.
• These stages were primarily based on subsistence strategies and technology.
• Cultural diversity was the result of some cultures not progressing as fast as others.
• Franz Boas proposed cultural relativism and historical particularism:
• All cultures are equally valid and the results of their own particular history, circumstances, and region
• Morgan’s theory contrasted all cultures against the modern European standard, stating that some cultures were “more advanced” or “better” than others. In contrast, Boas’s theories emphasized that all cultures needed to be understood and valued in their own context (thus, an inferior/superior classification is erroneous).

See pages 16-17 of your text.

11. Answers should include:

• Archaeologists tend to be found most often in popular culture (e.g., in such characters as Indiana Jones and Lara Croft), since their portrayals as adventurers provide numerous storylines regarding the past.
• Forensic anthropologists also receive a good amount of TV airtime, etc.
• Anthropologists are, overall, firmly embedded in popular culture, such as mainstream media (e.g., National Geographic), although their research is often filtered through journalists and social media lacking critical perspective.
• Anthropologists are also involved with movie-making:
• Creating new languages.
• Understanding primate behavior.
• Other real-world anthropological research more often includes employment with governments, businesses, Indigenous populations, and more. These projects may not be Indiana Jones–like in adventure, but anthropologists’ work around the world (such as mediating aid relationships, educating agencies, etc.) has wide-ranging implications.

See pages 21-26 of your text.

1. The lens of anthropology is

• a) special glass tool used by researchers conducting fieldwork.
• b) an historical perspective to examine past peoples’ livelihoods and foodways.
• c) a particular framework to help structure and focus thoughts on the origins and ongoing development of humans.
• d) a theory regarding how academic disciplines arise.

2. Culture can be defined as

• a) the learned and shared things that people have, think, and do as members of a society.
• b) the genus and species to which humans today belong.
• c) the study of human biology and culture, past and present, through evolutionary, holistic, and comparative perspectives.
• d) any location where there is physical evidence of past human activity.

3. What are the four subfields of anthropology?

• a) Cultural anthropology, primatology, forensic anthropology, and linguistic anthropology.
• b) Ethnography, archaeology, primatology, and sociology.
• c) Cultural anthropology, archaeology, biological anthropology, and linguistic anthropology.
• d) Ethnography, sociology, biological anthropology, and ideology.

4. When did anthropology become a scholarly discipline in North America?

• a) 1600s.
• b) 1700s.
• c) 1800s.
• d) 1900s.

5. Which are methodologies used by anthropologists conducting research?

• a) Passive-active ideology and pastoralism.
• b) Participant observation and ethnographic research.
• c) Cultural resource management and Traditional Use Studies (TUS).
• d) Ergonomics and salvage ethnography.

6. Early museums (1800s–1900s) contained

• a) famous textiles from around the world.
• b) millions of objects, including skeletons, often taken without the consent of Indigenous groups.
• c) dinosaur and other prehistoric bones and remains.
• d) salvaged pieces of technology, both past and present.

7. Diversity among practicing and scholarly anthropologists has

• a) been increasing since the inception of the discipline.
• b) been decreasing since the inception of the discipline.
• c) been staying the same since the inception of the discipline.
• d) never been an issue.

8. The history of anthropology in North America has largely focused on

• a) the environment and ecosystem issues.
• b) European lifeways and goods.
• c) dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals.
• d) Indigenous peoples.

9. Why might a government agency want to hire an anthropologist?

• a) To understand the pros and cons of economic policy on the federal budget.
• b) To facilitate spying on its citizens, using wiretaps, cameras, and other technologies without their knowledge.
• c) To conduct studies on specific medicines to ascertain their effectiveness.
• d) For military programs requiring information on local inhabitants and their cultures.

10. How might an archaeologist contribute to discussions and solutions regarding sustainability and/or food security?

• a) Archaeologists often live “off the grid” and can provide a template for using less energy.
• b) Archaeologists can trace the linguistic roots of languages, which enables them to recreate past migratory patterns of people around the world.
• c) Archaeologists can cite examples from the past when people have adapted successfully (or unsuccessfully) to comparable changing environments.
• d) Archaeologists grow certain foodstuffs (like wheat and barley) and experiment with different cooking methods.

Answers

1. c

Feedback: The anthropological discipline brings a particular set of perspectives to our attempts to understand the origin and existence of human beings. The lens of anthropology is a framework that provides structure to organize such thoughts while providing clarity and focus. The lens is a particular set of ideas, methods, theories, ethics, views, and research results.

See pages 3 and Glossary.

2. a

Feedback: Culture includes things such as subsistence strategies, diet, social and political systems, communication, technology, art, and ideologies—everything that people create, influence, and adapt.

See page 8.

3. c

Feedback: Although applied anthropology can sometimes be considered a separate branch, the four main subfields of anthropology are cultural anthropology, archaeology, biological anthropology, and linguistic anthropology. Applied anthropology can crosscut each of the subfields.

See pages 10-12.

4. c

Feedback: Although some anthropological endeavors were undertaken in the 1700s, they were rarely able to be classified as part of an anthropological discipline. Scholarly work began to establish itself in the mid-1800s (e.g., Morgan’s ethnography in 1851) and, by the late 1800s, anthropology was often part of university programs.

See pages 16-17.

5. b

Feedback: Immersion in a culture is often called ethnographic research, and the method of both observing and participating in a culture is known as participant observation.

See page 10.

6. b

Feedback: Colonial mentalities and practices—not coincidentally occurring alongside rapid changes in, and even the disappearance of, Indigenous peoples—often meant that anthropologists felt a sense of urgency when collecting material culture. The late 1800s and early 1900s were considered a golden age of museum collecting in North America. Anthropologists and others often collected millions of objects from Indigenous peoples for museums in North America and Europe. Some were negotiated and paid for; others were not. Hundreds of thousands of human skeletons were included in the collections.

See page 16-17.

7. a

Feedback: Over the last few decades, there has been a change in the make-up of those in the profession of anthropology. As in most academic disciplines, there has been a long history of white male dominance in North American anthropology. Male dominance has decreased in recent decades, and in terms of gender, the numbers of anthropologists may be roughly equal. However, with regards to ethnicity, the field has a long way to go; people of European descent and light skin color still remain a significant majority.

See pages 18-19.

8. d

Feedback: Anthropology in North America has a long history of entanglement with the Indigenous peoples of North America. From the late 1800s to the late 1900s, the overwhelming focus of anthropological study was on Indigenous groups in the territories now known as Canada and the United States. This instigated the creation of what is known as “salvage ethnography”: recording traditional Indigenous lifeways and languages before they disappeared.

See pages 21-22.

9. d

Feedback: Much like businesses, government agencies may have many reasons to hire anthropologists, since anthropologists can help them understand their own company (or agency), clients (or citizens), or markets (global relations or locations). For example, the US military had a program that embedded anthropologists in combat units to provide advice on local peoples and cultures. The ethics of this is hotly debated within the discipline.

See pages 12.

10. c

Feedback: Anthropology is increasingly important in a connected world and has much to offer to discussions of sustainability and food security. Archaeology, with its research on past peoples, can help illuminate how societies succeeded or failed, as well as how people have adapted to changing conditions (e.g., building smaller houses in colder times).

See pages 4-5 and 23.