In this chapter students will learn:

• the principal cultural periods in North America and Europe.
• prevailing ideas about and evidence for North American prehistory why and when people started developing new subsistence strategies.
• when new kinds of social and political systems emerged.
• how archaeologists reconstruct subsistence, settlement, and social systems.
• when and where civilizations and writing emerged.
• the conditions under which new technologies, such as pottery, were used.

Introduction
Many significant events and changes occurred between 20,000 and 5,000 years ago.

Principal Cultural Periods
Principal cultural periods in North America for this time period include the “PalaeoIndian” and “Archaic.” Principal periods in Europe include the Upper Palaeolithic, the Mesolithic, and the Neolithic.

Archaeology of North America from 20,000 to 5,000 Years Ago
Most archaeologists believe the initial human settlement of North America occurred between 20,000 and 15,000 years ago. Humans subsisted on a wide variety of wild plants and animals.

The Transition to Food Production
In some parts of the world, people began to domesticate plants and animals between about 15,000 and 12,000 years ago. There is no consensus on the reasons, but domestication does produce food surpluses.

Settlement and Technology
Settling down into permanent or semi-permanent settlement is strongly linked with domestication. Pottery becomes common when people settle down.

Changes in Social and Political Systems
Changes in social and political systems are linked to changes in food production, resulting in social stratification.

Civilizations, Writing, and Art
Civilizations and writing emerge a few hundred years prior to 5,000 years ago. Art has been pervasive for many thousands of years.

1. What are the names and time ranges of the principal cultural periods in North America and Europe?

2. What were the major cultural developments occurring between 20,000 and 5,000 years ago?

3. What are the principal explanations for the emergence of food production?

4. How do archaeologists distinguish domestic plants and animals from wild ones?

5. How can archaeologists distinguish specific kinds of social and political systems?

1. How may changes in subsistence, technology, settlements, and social and political systems be linked? Think holistically.

2. Do you think the development of new subsistence strategies, settlement patterns, social and political systems, and civilizations were beneficial for most people at the time they occurred?

3. If you could live any place on earth at any time between 20,000 and 5,000 years ago, where and when would that be? Why?

4. Should the word "civilization" be considered a loaded term? Why or why not?

5. Should the transition to new forms of subsistence strategies be considered progressive? Why or why not?

6. Should the transition to new forms of social and political systems be considered progressive? Why or why not?

agriculture a farming technique that can support a large population, using advanced tools and irrigation, and requiring more preparation and maintenance of the soil; also known as intensive cultivation

band a small egalitarian society of food foragers who live and travel together

Beringia a large, unglaciated land mass connecting North America and Asia during the last ice age

Big Man an informal leader who possesses authority based on prestige and persuasive power, found in Melanesian societies

carrying capacity the number of people that can be sustained with the existing resources of a given area

ceramics baked clay

chiefdom a type of political organization typically from a few thousand to tens of thousands of people, characterized by social inequality and hereditary leadership, and based on horticulture

city a settlement supporting a dense population with a centralized government, specialization, and socio-economic hierarchy

civilization a type of society characterized by a state-level of political organization, a system of writing, at least one city, and monumental architecturey

coastal migration route probably the route of first migrants to the Americas, along the coast of Alaska and British Columbia

domestication shaping the evolution of a species for human use

food producers people who transform the environment with the goal of food production, using farming and/or animal husbandry

food production transforming the environment with the goal of producing food using farming and/or animal husbandry

foraging utilization of food resources available in the environment; also known as food foraging or hunting and gathering

horticulturalists food producers who cultivate the land in small-scale farms or gardens

horticulture land cultivation in small-scale farms or gardens

ice-free corridor space between two ice sheets covering most of Canada during the last ice age, providing a possible route from Beringia to areas south

Mesolithic the time period from about 15,000 to 10,000 years ago; also known as the Middle Stone Age

Mesopotamia in ancient times, the area around modern-day Iraq

Neolithic the time period from about 10,000 to 5,000 years ago; also known as the New Stone Age

Paleo Diet a fad diet, based on the notion that people should be eating “like our ancestors” before the domestication of plants and animals

pastoralism a way of life that revolves around domesticating animals and herding them to pasture

pottery baked clay container

state a type of political organization in a highly populated, industrial society with strong centralized government

tribe a type of political organization with an uncentralized power structure, often seen among horticulturalists or pastoralists

Hayden, B. (2003). Were luxury foods the first domesticates? Ethnoarchaeological perspectives from Southeast Asia. World Archaeology 34 (3): 458-69.

Scarre, C. (Ed.). (2013). The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies (3^rd edition). London, UK: Thames and Hudson.

Essential Humanities – Overview of Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages
essential-humanities.net/history-overview/stone-bronze-iron-ages

World Heritage Sites
whc.unesco.org/en/list

1. What are some concerns with the perception of “Paleo” times being more natural or better than modern times?

2. What are the major North American and European cultural periods?

3. What are the major routes people used to first come to the Americas?

4. Why do archaeologists consider North American sites that pre-date 14,000 years unreliable?

5. What are the benefits and negative consequences of relying on domesticates as a primary subsistence strategy?

6. What attributes would you expect to see in domestic varieties of plants?

7. What attributes would you expect to see in domestic varieties of animals?

8. Why don’t forager groups usually use pottery?

9. What are the major differences between tribes and chiefdoms?

10. How could you identify social and political systems through archaeology?

Answers

1. Answers should address that rises in paleo fads promote lifestyles and activities that are perceived as being more natural as a means to counter many negative aspects of contemporary society. There are numerous issues with this premise, including the following:

• The belief that humans have not evolved or adapted in the last 10,000 years. There have been many biological and cultural changes since that time (such as becoming lactose tolerant) that affect what we can eat.
• The belief that there was a universal food, diet, or subsistence strategy at some point in the human past. Humans in the past spread over a large geographic area and adapted their lifestyles to fit the local context.
• The belief that older is considered more natural. This implies that current lifestyles are unnatural, which is also a problematic statement. All human activities are natural. Human activities vary because they are better or worse adapted to their particular time and place.

See page 134-135 of your text.

2. Answers should note that the North American and European cultural periods differ and are differentiated based on differing characteristics.

• North America
• PaleoIndian period that dates from 14,000 to 9,000 years ago. Characterized by foragers hunting megafauna.
• Archaic period that dates from 9,000 to 5,000 years ago. Characterized by an ongoing foraging adaptation.
• Europe
• Upper Paleolithic that dates from 40,000 to 12,000 years ago.
• Mesolithic that dates from 12,000 to 10,000 years ago. Characterized by a climate change in Europe, advances in stone tool technology, and changes in diet.
• Neolithic that dates from 10,000 to 5,000 years ago. Characterized by a shift to farming.

See pages 136-137 of your text.

3. Answers should note that there are several different possible routes used and it is likely that more than one was used through time. The major routes are as follows:

• Beringia, a large ice-free area that connected northern Asia to northwest North America during the last ice age
• The coastal migration route. This is a route people took in boats or by walking along the Alaskan and British Columbian coastline to avoid the major glaciers.
• The ice-free corridor route. This was a corridor that opened between two glaciers during a warming period. Once open, people would have been able to travel along this corridor from northwestern North America to more southern glacier-free areas.
• The Solutrean hypothesis. This proposes that people travelled from Europe by boats, crossed the north Atlantic, and travelled south along the Atlantic coast to reach glacier free areas.

See pages 138-140 of your text.

4. Answers should acknowledge that some archaeologists claim that older sites do exist in North America. These claims are often heavily critiqued for a variety of reasons, which can include the following:

• There is no known reliable route into North America prior to 14,000 years ago.
• It is often unclear whether the earlier identified stone tools were made by humans or created by natural stone breakage.
• Many of the earlier sites would likely have been along the coast and are now submerged.
• Very often the earlier sites cannot be subjected to Carbon 14 dating, and if so, the materials are often found in proximity to contaminants that would affect the results.

See page 140 of your text.

5. Answers should acknowledge that the adoption of domesticates is not an entirely positive development; there are many detrimental outcomes of the adoption of domesticates. As such, groups that eschewed domesticates should not be considered inferior or less developed.

• Benefits:
• A food surplus to increase the carrying capacity of a region.
• A more sedentary lifestyle so that people can use/accumulate more goods.
• The food surplus and sedentary lifestyle can encourage food storage for food shortages.
• Negative consequences:
• Less leisure time than a foraging lifestyle.
• People tend to have poorer nutrition and more diseases.
• A larger population and sedentary lifestyle increases the likelihood of interpersonal conflict.

See pages 145-146 of your text.

6. It should be noted that some or all of these attributes may be present in domestic varieties. Your answer should include the following attributes:

• The useable portion of the plant tends to be larger.
• The loss of a natural mechanism of dispersal.
• The clustering of the useable portion of the plant.
• A genetic change.
• Loss of a dormancy period.
• The simultaneous ripening of the plants.
• Less self-protective mechanisms.

See page 152 of your text.

7. It should be noted that some or all of these attributes may be present in domestic varieties. Your answer should include the following attributes:

• Animals in the early stages of domestication tend to be smaller.
• The presence of more complete skeletons in the faunal assemblage.
• A higher percentage of young male animals in the faunal assemblage.
• A higher percentage of old female animals in the faunal assemblage.

See page 152 of your text.

8. Your answer should demonstrate an understanding that forager groups are usually highly mobile so it is in their interest to maintain a small and portable tool assemblage. As such, the following characteristics of pottery would be a disadvantage in this context:

• Pottery tends to be bulky. The nature of the early clay vessels meant that the vessels tended to be large and the vessel walls were thick.
• Pottery tends to be heavy. Along with their bulk, early clay vessels tended to be heavy and difficult to move around.
• Pottery tends to be fragile. While individual sherds could survive for a long time, the vessel as a whole tends to be more fragile and prone to breakage if repeatedly moved over long distances.

See pages 153-154 of your text.

9. Your answer should note the following differences:

• Tribes:
• May be a group of several villages, but usually fewer than a few thousand people.
• Each village had a leader (Big Man) whose role was to maintain order and represent the village when interacting with others. The leader’s position was usually achieved rather than hereditary.
• Chiefdoms:
• Tended to be larger and have more villages. Populations could reach tens of thousands.
• Typically had a rigid hierarchical structure. Leadership was hereditary.
• Some form of taxation to support the leadership.

See pages 155-156 of your text.

10. Your answer could list any of the following examples:

• The subsistence strategy often correlates with social structure.
• Foraging with bands.
• Pastoralists with tribes.
• Horticulturalists with chiefdoms.
• Agriculturalists with states.
• Evidence of the level of social stratification.
• As the social and political systems change from bands to states there is generally an increase in social stratification. This could be indicated by differences in house size and materials, or quantities of luxury and prestige goods.

See pages 155-156 of your text.

1. The Archaic period refers to

• a) 40,000 to 12,000 years ago in Europe.
• b) 14,000 to 9,000 years ago in North America.
• c) 10,000 t0 5,000 years ago in Europe.
• d) 9,000 to 5,000 years ago in North America.

2. The Solutrean hypothesis is

• a) the theory that North America was first populated by European peoples who sailed across the Atlantic in early boats.
• b) the belief that there was once a landmass that connected northern Asia to North America.
• c) the theory that North America was first populated by Asian peoples who sailed down the Pacific coast in early boats.
• d) the belief that there was a gap between two North American glaciers during a warming period that was used to populate the continent.

3. The domestication of plants is referred to as

• a) agriculture.
• b) pastoralism.
• c) horticulture.
• d) industrialization.

4. Which of the following faunal assemblages would likely be of domesticated animals?

• a) An assemblage with a lower percentage of complete older male sheep skeletons.
• b) An assemblage with a lower percentage of young male deer skulls.
• c) An assemblage with a larger percentage of older female cow skeletons.
• d) An assemblage with a larger percentage of younger female cat femurs.

5. Which of the following is an attribute of domestic varieties of plants?

• a) The colors tend to be more vibrant to make them easier to see.
• b) The parts used by humans tend to be larger and clustered.
• c) They tend to have larger thorns to prevent other animals eating them.
• d) They tend to ripen throughout the year to provide a constant source of food.

6. Which of the following subsistence strategies tend to be correlated with semi-sedentism?

• a) Foraging.
• b) Pastoralism.
• c) Horticulture.
• d) Agriculture.

7. Pottery was first used in

• a) China about 20,000 years ago.
• b) Japan about 15,000 years ago.
• c) Africa about 10,000 year ago.
• d) North America about 3,000 years ago.

8. States tend to be associated with which subsistence strategy?

• a) Foraging.
• b) Pastoralism.
• c) Horticulture.
• d) Agriculture.

9. Which subsistence strategy would typically have a Big Man?

• a) Foraging.
• b) Pastoralists.
• c) Horticulture.
• d) Agriculture.

10. Which of the following is a popular explanation for the early adoption of domestication?

• a) Domestication was a natural development as humans continued to evolve.
• b) People who practiced domestication were healthier and lived longer.
• c) Domestication was a means to increase the carrying capacity of a region affected by environmental change.
• d) As people became more sedentary, leaders demanded this subsistence change.

Answers

1. d

Feedback: The Archaic period refers to 9,000 to 5,000 years ago in North America. Europe and North America have differing cultural periods.

See page 136.

2. a

Feedback: The Solutrean hypothesis is the theory that North America was first populated by European peoples who sailed across the Atlantic and down the Atlantic coast in early boats.

See page 138.

3. c

Feedback: The domestication of plants is referred to as horticulture.

See pages 144-145.

4. c

Feedback: Domesticated assemblages tend to have more complete skeletons and a higher percentage of older females because they would usually have been eaten after they could no longer breed.

See pages 151-152.

5. b

Feedback: The parts of domestic varieties of plants that are used by humans tend to be larger and clustered for easier harvesting.

See page 152.

6. b

Feedback: Pastoral societies tend to be semi-sedentary in order to transfer their herds to optimal gazing areas.

See page 153.

7. a

Feedback: The earliest use of pottery occurred in China at least 20,000 years ago.

See page 153.

8. d

Feedback: Populations based on agriculture are typically organized as state societies.

See page 156.

9. b

Feedback: Pastoral societies tended to be tribes, which had Big Men as formal or informal leaders.

See page 155.

10. c

Feedback: The early transition to domestication has been attributed to the need to increase a region’s carrying capacity as a response to environmental change.

See page 147.