In this chapter students will learn:

• the anthropological definition of culture.
• the meaning of race and ethnicity and how the idea of race is misunderstood.
• the usefulness of cultural relativism in studying culture and the importance of identifying ethnocentrism.
• how to evaluate whether cultural practices are adaptive or maladaptive.
• the functions of culture.
• how raising children and cultural practices are connected.
• how anthropologists study culture in the field.
• the applicability of anthropological research to solving problems.

Introduction
Culture is learned, not instinctive. It is like a web of (mostly) unspoken rules about values and behavior.

The Culture Concept
Culture is the shared understandings that guide our behavior. It is made up of three parts: what we think, what we do, and what we have. Culture is also characterized by four aspects: it is learned, shared, holistic, and symbolic. Society refers to the group of people who share culture. People learn how to behave as a member of their society through enculturation.

Race and Ethnicity
The concept of race formed when explorers returned from trips to the New World with wild stories of “savage” peoples, and Linnaeus recorded these in his classification of all living things on Earth. Although the word race is meaningless when applied to humans because all people share 99.9 per cent of their DNA, prejudice and discrimination based on perceived race exist across cultures. Groups of people who share culture, language, and, often, heritage share ethnicity.

Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
An ethnocentric approach to cultural differences judges people to be abnormal or wrong because they are different. On the other hand, a culturally relative approach recognizes that all cultures are valid and complex, and may only be evaluated in their own cultural context. Anthropologists take the latter approach.

Cultural Adaptation and Maladaptation
Cultural adaptation largely drives change among human groups. Not all change is beneficial, however. Maladaptive practices lead to the long-term harm of people or threaten the survival of the culture.

The Functions of Culture
Culture should support its members’ health, longevity, distribution of goods and services, order, and continued enculturation. Anthropologists have found two general patterns of enculturation based on child rearing: dependence training and independence training. Different types of child rearing develop different sets of values and cultural norms.

Fieldwork Methods and Ethics
Ethnographers study culture in field settings, with the intent to produce an ethnography. They use a variety of methods, but primarily participant observation, in order to interact with informants. It is essential that the ethnographer act ethically toward his or her informants. Ethnography can also be conducted online in communities of people who interact with each other virtually.

Applied Anthropology
Applied anthropologists work with communities to solve real-world problems. Applied anthropologists may work in corporate settings, for governments, or for non-governmental organizations (NGOs).

1. What makes anthropologists’ study of culture different from those in other fields’?

2. What are the components of culture?

3. What are the differences between an ethnocentric and culturally relative approach to culture?

4. What are the criteria for the adaptive aspects of culture?

5. How do different child-rearing practices affect the development of personality and culture?

6. How should anthropologists in the field (whether face-to-face or virtually) ensure they are acting ethically?

7. How can anthropological understandings and perspectives help solve real-world problems?

1. How does the opening anecdote about the author’s insect-eating dilemma illustrate the lens of anthropology?

2. What aspects of your culture are maladaptive? Use the criteria in Table 8.2 to make your assessment.

3. What do you think about the argument that collectivist (i.e., dependence training) cultures are more likely to follow a mask mandate resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic?

4. If you received funding for a year of fieldwork, what community of people would you choose to study and what would be the focus of your research?

5. How might an applied anthropologist help solve a particular problem in your community?

agency the capacity of a person to think for themselves and control their life choices

applied anthropology a field of anthropology in which the researcher uses knowledge of anthropological methods, theory, and perspectives to solve human problems

biological adaptation a physical adaptation that allows an organism to survive better in its environment

Black Lives Matter movement that began in 2013 as a grassroots activist campaign to make visible the experiences of Black Americans subjected to police brutality; has since grown into a global movement that seeks to confront and end systematic racism and violence against Black people

community people who share a physical location; people who live, work, and play together

COVID-19 the acronym given to the disease caused by a new coronavirus first identified in 2019; COVID-19 created a global pandemic

cultural adaptation a belief or behavior that allows an organism with culture (especially humans) to better thrive in their environment

cultural relativism the idea that all cultures are equally valid, and that every culture can be understood only in its own context

dependence training a set of child-rearing practices that supports compliance to the family unit over individual needs

diasporic spread to different parts of the world, especially used in reference to ethnic or cultural groups

discourse written and spoken communication

discrimination actions taken as a result of prejudice

emic an insider’s view; the perspective of the subject

emigrant a person who leaves their home country in order to live in another country

enculturation the process by which culture is passed from generation to generation

entomophagy the practice of eating insects for food

ethnicity a term used to describe the heritage, geographic origin, language, and other features of a person

ethnocentrism the idea that our own customs are normal while the customs of others are strange, wrong, or even disgusting

ethnographer a cultural anthropologist who studies a group of people in a field setting

ethnographic research the process of studying culture, undertaken in a field setting

ethnography the written or visual product of ethnographic (field) research

etic an outsider’s view; an objective explanation

eugenics a pseudoscience of “race improvement”

group people who share culture; they may or may not live in the same physical location, but often in the same region

heterogeneous sharing few identity markers

homogeneous sharing similar identity markers

Human Terrain System US Army program involving anthropologists deployed with military units in active conflict zones

ideal behavior how people believe they behave or would like to behave; the norms of a society

identity markers cultural characteristics of a person, such as ethnicity, socio-economic class, religious beliefs, age, gender, and interests

independence training the set of child-rearing practices that foster a child’s self-reliance

informants study subjects of an anthropologist; also referred to variously as collaborators, field subjects, or associates

judgment sample a method of choosing informants based on their knowledge or skills

key associate a person with whom the ethnographer spends a great amount of time because of the person’s knowledge, skills, or insight (see key informant)

key informant a person with whom the ethnographer spends a great amount of time because of the person’s knowledge, skills, or insight

maladaptive leading to harm or death; not productive for a culture’s survival in the long run

participant observation a research method used in anthropology in which an ethnographer lives with a group of people and observes their regular activities

participatory action research an applied anthropological method of field research and implementation of solutions; relies on close collaboration with the target community

personality the unique way an individual thinks, feels and acts

prejudicean unfavorable bias toward something or someone; a preformed opinion not based on fact

race a term used to describe varieties or subspecies of a species; inaccurately used to refer to human differences

random sample a method of choosing informants randomly

real behavior how people actually behave as observed by an ethnographer in the field

refugee a person who has had to leave their country to seek safety, especially due to war, religious or cultural persecution, or natural disasters

resistance acting in opposition to a dominant power using cultural meanings and symbols

snowball sample a method of finding informants through association with previous informants

society people who share a large number of social or cultural connections; in the animal world, a group of animals born with instincts that cause them to occupy a particular place in the group hierarchy

subculture a group of people within a culture who are connected by similar identity markers, may include ethnic heritage or interests

symbol something that stands for something else with little or no natural relationship to its referent; a type of sign

Doing Ethnography

Agar, M. (1996). The Professional Stranger (2^nd edition). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Bowen, E.S. (1964). Return to Laughter. New York, NY: Anchor.

Cultural Relativism and Ethnocentrism

Miner, H. (1956). Body ritual among the Nacirema. American Anthropologist 58(3):503-507.

Ethics in Anthropology

Borofsky, R. (2005). Yanomami: The Fierce Controversy and What We Can Learn From It. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.

Fluehr-Loban, C. (2013). Ethics and Anthropology: Ideas and Practice. Lanham, MD: Altamira Press.

Applied Anthropology

Van Willingen, J. (1993). Applied Anthropology: An Introduction (2^nd edition). South Hadley, MA: Bergin & Garvey.

A Sample of Classic Contemporary Ethnographies

Boellstorff, T. (2008). Coming of Age in Second Life: An Anthropologist Explores the Virtually Human. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Bourgois, P. and Schonberg, J. (2009). Righteous Dopefiend. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.

Fernea, E.W. (1995). Guests of the Sheik: An Ethnography of an Iraqi Village. New York, NY: Anchor.

Scheper-Hughes, N. (1993). Death Without Weeping: The Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.

Shostak, M. (2000). Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman (4^th edition). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

American Anthropological Association (AAA)
aaanet.org

AAA Teaching Materials Exchange
aaanet.org/resources/Teaching-Materials-Search-Form.cfm

anthro{dendum} (formerly Savage Minds)
anthrodendum.org

Canadian Anthropology Society (CASCA)
cas-sca.ca

Cultural Anthropology Tutorials by Dr. Dennis O’Neil, Palomar College
anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/cultural.htm

Living Anthropologically (blog by Jason Antrosio, Hartwick College)
livinganthropologically.com

National Association for the Practice of Anthropology (NAPA)
practicinganthropology.org

Open School of Ethnography and Anthropology (OSEA) Community Institute for Transcultural Exchange
osea-cite.org

Society for Anthropology in Community Colleges (SACC) Teaching Resources
aaanet.org/sections/sacc/?page_id=662

Society for Applied Anthropology (SFAA)
sfaa.net

1. Is it possible to conduct applied anthropological research on food topics or issues? What kinds of areas might such research examine? How might Lesnik’s research be considered applied?

2. Consider your own culture. Describe three aspects of it (one for each of the three basic parts) and explain why each fulfills its relative category.

3. Explain why studying a single instance of an aspect of a culture, such as a wedding ceremony, while important, does not give a comprehensive understanding of the culture overall.

4. Justify how both a neighborhood in Toronto and in Canada overall can be considered a cultural group or a community.

5. Was race an accurate method for categorizing historical peoples? Why is this concept relevant today?

6. What is the difference between ethnocentrism and cultural relativism? How can enculturation intensify both of these perspectives?

7. Assess the adaptiveness of a culture that prioritizes smoking as a daily practice.

8. Using terms and concepts from this chapter, explain different conclusions that can be drawn from the following two scenarios:

• 1. Person A gets on a nearly empty bus and sits next to the only other person (Person B, a stranger) on the bus, making eye contact and smiling. In this scenario, Person B is uncomfortable with Person A.
• 2. Person A gets on a nearly empty bus and sits next to the only other person (Person B, a stranger) on the bus, making eye contact and smiling. In this scenario, Person B is comfortable with Person A.

9. Imagine a research project done online with a digital community: how might the way informants are chosen affect the conclusions of such research?

10. What are some potential ethical dilemmas an anthropologist might face when conducting research on an Indigenous culture if his or her project is funded by a government wishing to develop that people’s land?

Answers

1. Yes, there are many ways applied anthropological research could center on food issues. This answer varies, depending on your own experience, and should show an understanding of applied anthropology.

• Applying anthropological methods, theory, and perspectives to solve human problems is understood as applied anthropology. Researchers in this field may end up working with a variety of organizations, such as governments, NGOs, businesses, communities, and more.
• Human problems centered on food issues are numerous. Your examples could include any of the following:
• Sustainability and ecology
• International trade
• Acculturation and colonization
• Scarcity, drought, or other limiting factors
• Dietary preferences
• Allergies, diseases, illnesses, etc. (health)
• Business protocols and deals
• Food trucks and local competition
• Lesnik’s research looked at the protein content in bugs, and evaluated them as a sustainable future food source. This research could help answer questions about the effects of bugs on the human diet, and how to convince Westerners that bugs are a good food option.

See pages 187-188 of your text.

2. This answer should demonstrate an understanding of each of the three basic aspects of culture, but applied in a unique way, depending on the individual. Each of the three answers could be a number of things, as long as they are justified correctly.

• Cognitive: What we think. For example, a proverb or saying, such as “A stitch in time saves nine.” This would illustrate a culture’s norms and practices (sewing) and values (better to prevent something than deal with the eventual larger fallout). We relate to one another through such sayings.
• Behavioral: What we do. For example, a handshake. This builds on how we think people should act and what actions are appropriate in given circumstances. A handshake might guide your behavior in the proper way when you are meeting someone new.
• Artifacts: What we have. For example, a newspaper. This item is portable and is something people can make, alter, or use. You can read it, or be an author of it, or do the crossword, or even turn it into a paper plane or something else.

See page 189 of your text.

3. This answer requires a good comprehension of the characteristics of culture. It should focus on the significance of a holistic perspective when trying to understand something as complex as culture; it should also focus on varying symbolisms and how they are learned and shared. Using the wedding example, one could make the following points:

• Marriage and weddings are not innate human behaviors; they are learned behavior, so in order to understand how and why they occur, one needs to address issues beyond those that can be explored in a single example.
• Weddings contain a great number of symbolic practices, such as the exchange of rings, the wearing of traditional or formal clothing, the decorating of the ceremonial site and more. Studying a single example of this would not represent the multitude of ways that weddings can take place, even within a single culture.
• Marriage practices are often shared processes, though a single wedding might not necessarily represent this (imagine the opposite of whatever you consider to be a stereotypical wedding). Thus, drawing conclusions about a culture from a single occurrence could present a very different picture than the reality.
• Finally, and most significantly (tying in all the above factors), culture is holistic. Studying a wedding will provide great data, but without context, it does not contribute to cultural studies. All aspects of society are linked, and so this kind of critical thinking is needed when understanding how, why, and when a wedding occurs.

See pages 190-191 of your text.

4. This answer should draw on the distinction between homogeneous and heterogeneous groups, while demonstrating an understanding of how communities and groups are formed.

• Depending on what kind of neighborhood you choose to use, the Toronto group could be a community or group based on geographical and everyday experiential aspects, or focused on identity markers such as ethnicity, religion, age, etc. This group could then be understood as homogeneous or heterogeneous, depending on which characteristics you choose.
• Canada overall is necessarily heterogeneous, being comprised of many different peoples and groups. However, it retains an overall national sense of identity (e.g., an identity marker) that is based on a common set of understandings usually learned through enculturation. Taking the example even further, an expat group living outside Canada but in the same neighborhood could combine these aspects, demonstrating the multiple ways in which groups and communities are formed and reinforced.

See pages 189-191 of your text.

5. No, race has never been an accurate way to categorize humans, as it is not a biological truth; however, it has been a social construct used in many different contexts. This answer should explore a bit of the history described in the text (e.g., sixteenth-century exploration and colonization practices; the Linnaeus system). The aspect of contemporary relevance can vary depending on the answer; it should, however, likely include an understanding of how eugenics works (and why this depends on the concept of race) and other ways in which perceived racial differences affect people’s lives (a very recent example could be the Ferguson riots in the United States, or recognition of the effects of residential schools on the Indigenous people of Canada).

See pages 192-195 of your text.

6. This answer should mainly focus on clearly defining all three terms, but also demonstrate comprehension of how they work in reality (applying enculturation both ways).

• The idea that our own customs are normal, while the customs of others are strange, wrong, or even disgusting, is the central notion of ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism allows people to feel superior to others by denigrating differences in their behavior, ideas, or values.
• The idea that all cultures are equally valid and can be understood and interpreted only in their own contexts is cultural relativity.
• Because enculturation is the way in which culture is transmitted from one generation to the next (including knowledge, understandings, etc.), both ethnocentric attitudes and cultural relativistic perspectives have the potential to be intensified, depending on what kind of things are reinforced by your cultural “teachers” (whether parents, friends, etc.).

See page 200 of your text.

7. Answers should include:

• In any society, the culture should provide for the basic needs of the group. Specifically, aspects of culture (beliefs and behaviors) should serve to support the health and well-being of members and the survival of the culture itself.
• Cultural adaptations include all the ways that humans use cultural knowledge to better adapt and succeed in their surroundings. Any behavior that leads to a decrease in well-being of the members of a culture or to the culture itself is not adaptive. These practices are known as maladaptive since they may lead to harmful results.
• If aspects of a culture are adaptive, they should support the health and well-being of its members. If maladaptive, they may lead to ill effects for the people or the longevity of the culture itself.
• Smoking can be considered a maladaptive practice, since it is understood to cause cancer and other potentially fatal severe health problems in people. This does not mean that smoking does not also serve other purposes (perhaps smoking in this culture signifies trust and affirms relationships), but it does mean that the impact of smoking on the culture includes negative consequences.
• Your answer should contain or develop some of the questions used to assess cultural adaptations, as provided by the text on p. 189.

See pages 200-203 of your text.

8. This answer should use the ideas of personality development and norms in contrast to cultural contexts. It could even draw on the methodologies of anthropologists, such as participant observation and ethnographic research. You should be able to define all these terms.

• Personality is how an individual thinks, feels, and acts. Culture plays a big role in how someone’s personality develops, because one’s social environment interacts with one’s specific set of genes. What are considered to be “normal” personalities and traits depends on the specific culture (e.g., what is appropriate).
• In Scenario 1, Person A conducts him, or herself counter to the preferences of Person B. Depending on whose “home” culture the bus ride is taking place in, one of these two people likely has a personality trait that is not appreciated according to the cultural norms of this bus (e.g., it is considered impolite to make eye contact with a stranger; therefore, Person A is a foreigner or simply someone who has a gregarious personality).
• In Scenario 2, both people act appropriately, which means they likely share the same cultural norms regarding interactions on buses with strangers. This doesn’t mean they are both friendly people (a personality trait), but rather that they adhere to their specific cultural norms. Someone who didn’t make eye contact might be considered the outlier in this scenario.
• There are many other variations this answer can take, all depending on the characteristics envisioned by the reader, but they can be justified so long as they use cultural terms such as personality norms, culture-bound disorder, personality traits, enculturation, etc.

See pages 189-191 of your text.

9. This answer should draw together the definitions of informant categories and processes with alternative types of research to highlight applications of anthropology. The answer does depend on how one envisions the digital project.

• Participant observation is the main method for cultural anthropological studies, whereby a researcher lives with a people and observes their regular activities, often for a year or more. The ethnographer participates in daily life, while at the same time maintaining some observational distance in order to be able to reflect and analyze. This type of research needs to be adapted to fit an online project.
• The term netnography is often used to talk about research conducted online, adapting traditional modes of research to digital arenas. This could include online gaming systems, website commenter communities, blogs and forums on specific topics, and much more.
• In a random sample, in which the ethnographer selects people at random, the goal is to allow everyone an equal chance to be interviewed. This might best be employed in a small, homogeneous community, or when an average is desired.
• Online, a random sample could be advantageous, or it could give very skewed results: the digital world overall is extremely heterogeneous, so it depends on what type of community one is hoping to study.
• A judgment sample selects informants based on skills, knowledge, insight, and/or sensitivity to cultural issues. The field-worker will usually develop close ties with one or more informants who are chosen for these reasons, and spend a lot time with them. These crucial members of the community are referred to as key informants.
• Conclusions could be strengthened if one is studying something specific, where details are paramount and generalized experiences aren’t as important; conversely, conclusions could be lacking if one is examining public attitudes about something. For example, talking to the general online public about science fiction fandoms will result in very different information than if one talks solely to those involved in such fandoms.
• A snowball sample, in which one informant introduces the ethnographer to other informants, can be very helpful.
• This could work well in “closed” online communities, where introductions are necessary before one can virtually meet other members. However, this method could skew the findings, since you don’t know the extent to which you are missing other perspectives from those outside your network contacts.

See pages 206-207 of your text.

10. This answer can vary, but should hit at least some of the following points below to demonstrate an understanding of how anthropology deals with ethical issues:

• Anthropological findings may not always be accurate; a lack of trust may prohibit truthful information from informants. Intercultural communication may alter the information and interpretations (the anthropologist’s intentions may not always be clear, and he may read others’ intentions wrongly as well).
• The AAA Code of Ethics provides a set of guidelines for proper conduct. It primarily protects those with whom anthropologists interact in the field and those who may be affected by their work. The first and foremost item in the Code is “do no harm.” Anthropologists must weigh the possible impacts of their actions on the dignity, health, and material well-being of those among whom they work.
• In the specific scenario of the question, ethics arise in many forms: funding, external motivations of research, etc.
• Dilemmas could include what to do with sensitive information of Indigenous culture relating to the land that would facilitate a government takeover of their land; what kind of information the anthropologist feels obligated to share with an external source; what kinds of interpretations the anthropologist might make (incorrectly) that could affect his or her conclusions (and thus perhaps future government policies); what kind of (potentially) false information the anthropologist might be given by the community because of people’s skepticism and lack of trust; whether or not the anthropologist can definitely state that this research will “do no harm”; what the potential impacts to the community might be; etc.

See pages 208-209 of your text.

1. Culture can be envisioned as a computer program because

• a) it is extremely simple, with a very small number of rules.
• b) it is inorganic and created from a single person with a specific purpose.
• c) it has rules and instructions for behavior.
• d) culture must be restarted regularly and cannot run for long periods of time.

2. National gay pride parades and festivals could be best described with which term?

• a) Heterogeneous subcultures.
• b) Heterogeneous ethnicities.
• c) Homogeneous communities.
• d) Homogeneous diasporas.

3. To conduct an ethnographic project in a community that is extremely closed to outsiders, what might be the most helpful method for gathering informants?

• a) A judgment sample.
• b) A snowball sample.
• c) A random sample.
• d) A collaborative sample.

4. You decide to approach someone you don’t know to ask for a date even though you are nervous the person might see your invitation as too forward. This process involves what aspect(s) of culture?

• a) Artifact.
• b) Cognitive and artifact.
• c) Artifact and behavioral.
• d) Cognitive and behavioral.

5. You are conducting research in Finland, where coed saunas are the norm and the nude body is not sexualized in this context. You receive an invitation to go to sauna with some colleagues. Which of the following would be a cultural relativistic reaction to this scenario, given that your home culture views nakedness as improper?

• a) My culture doesn’t allow saunas, and I don’t think you guys should do it either.
• b) I’ll do it, but only to prove to you all that it is stupid and not appropriate.
• c) Ew, that’s disgusting. How do you stand it?
• d) Thanks for the offer—sauna has an interesting history and I’m looking forward to trying it!

6. A household comprising two generations in which the parents encourage their children to be competitive in order to succeed is likely adhering to what style of training?

• a) Independence.
• b) Dependence.
• c) Culture-bound.
• d) Holistic.

7. Imagine a fieldwork scenario in which you realize that if you publish your data, the community you work with will most likely have its sacred sites looted by outsiders. According to the American Anthropological Association’s Code of Ethics, you should

• a) publish, because scientific scholarship must be respected above all else.
• b) publish, but only in a closed-access journal available to anthropologists and not the general public.
• c) not publish, because your work detrimentally affects your subjects.
• d) not publish, because your work always needs the approval of the subjects with whom you work.

8. Eugenics is an pseudoscience predicated on the mistaken belief that

• a) certain cultural identities are more valuable than others.
• b) race is a biological fact and that races can be ranked as superior and inferior.
• c) ethnocentrism is the optimal way to conduct governmental policies.
• d) entomophagy can determine which people are more evolved.

9. A maladaptive culture is one in which

• a) the health and well-being of its members is paramount.
• b) certain practice(s) harm its members.
• c) culture-bound disorders are extremely common.
• d) children are raised in a competitive atmosphere.

Answers

1. c

Feedback: Symbolic anthropologist Dr. Clifford Geertz described culture like a computer program, with modern anthropologists wanting to know how culture functions like an “app”.

See page 187.

2. a

Feedback: Groups that share few identity markers are described as heterogeneous (hetero = different). A gay pride parade shares a key identity marker in sexuality, but is otherwise comprised of people belonging to different groups with many languages, religious beliefs, values, and ethnicities.

See pages 190-191.

3. b

Feedback: In a snowball sample, one informant introduces the ethnographer to other informants; this method would be very helpful in a community in which outsiders are generally not trusted.

See page 207.

4. d

Feedback: How you are thinking about the encounter and how you actually act are cognitive and behavioral aspects of culture. If you gave the person a flower, that would fulfill the third aspect (artifact).

See page 189.

5. d

Feedback: Culture can be understood and interpreted only in its own context. Cultural relativity allows anthropologists to study people’s beliefs and behavior without judgment

See page 200.

6. a

Feedback: Independence training refers to the set of child-rearing practices that foster a child’s self-reliance. Competition is fostered, and emphasis is placed on developing the talents and skills of each child, so that he or she can be competitive and successful in life.

See pages 203-204.

7. c

Feedback: This is a case where you would be doing harm by publishing, and the AAA states that your first responsibility is to the people and animals with whom you work; scholarship and science come after that.

See pages 205-206.

8. b

Feedback: Eugenics is a pseudoscience with the aim of purifying the human race; it necessarily entails the belief that race is a natural fact.

See page 195.

9. b

Feedback: If aspects of culture are adaptive, they should support the health and well-being of members. If maladaptive, they may lead to ill effects for the people or the longevity of the culture itself.

See pages 200-201.