In this chapter students will learn:

• that language is based on symbols.
• the differences between human language and primate communication.
• different hypotheses for the origin of human language.
• the steps a linguistic anthropologist would take to understand the components of a language.
• the components that make meaning beyond just words.
• the types of language that an ethnolinguist would study.
• how language is changing in the digital age.
• how languages have been suppressed and lost.

Introduction
Language is a symbolic system expressing meaning through sound and gestures. It is intimately and essentially linked to human culture, each influencing the other. Non-human primates communicate in a variety of ways, but do not have the anatomy or highly developed brain structures to produce complex and symbolic speech.

Language and Communication: Signs and Symbols
While non-human primates largely use index signs to communicate, humans use symbolic language. Human symbolic language has three main characteristics: We (1) use symbols freely, (2) use words to deceive, and (3) can create new utterances in infinite ways.

Language Origins
Although there are many hypotheses regarding language origins, trust between individuals was likely one of the most important aspects of shifting from gestural to verbal language.

Studying Language Through the Lens of Anthropology
Language can be broken down into parts: phonetics, phonemics, morphemes, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.

Non-verbal Communication
Paralanguage (voice qualities and vocalizations) provides additional meaning during speech. Meaning is also expressed by the various forms of silent language, including the use of proxemics, kinesics, touch, and time. Because silent language often differs across cultures, it is easy to misunderstand the intent of an utterance in a different language than one’s own.

Ethnolinguistics
Ethnolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and culture. Whorf’s “linguistic relativity principle” explored how much our language shapes our perception of culture. Many aspects of one’s culture and subculture determine our speech patterns. These include our cultural models, gender, speech communities, and the ability to code switch between languages or registers.

Language in the Digital Age
Electronically mediated communication (EMC) fosters creative ways to talk and write.

Language Change and Loss
Languages merge in a variety of ways when cultures meet. Sadly, some languages are moribund or have gone extinct. Some communities are implementing ways to support language revitalization.

1. Do other primates or animals use the same kind of symbolic language that humans do?

2. Why do anthropologists argue that language is much more than verbal speech?

3. To what degree do anthropologists today believe in the validity of the linguistic relativity principle?

4. What are some of the ways that language changes in social situations?

5. What are some of the interesting aspects of EMC?

5. Why do languages lose speakers?

6. How are languages becoming revitalized today?

1. What special vocabulary (or “lingo”) do you know by virtue of your membership in a subculture or specialized social group?

2. What words entered into your personal vocabulary for the first time as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic?

3. Do you think that texting is ruining the language? In your experience, how has texting changed the way you talk or write?

4. Have you had experiences while traveling in which others had different zones of kinesics, proxemics, or touch?

code switching the practice of moving easily between speech styles or languages in a conversation or single utterance

creole a stable language that forms over time when two languages have sustained contact; often the result of a pidgin language’s natural development

cultural model a widely shared understanding about the world that helps us organize our experience in it; determines the metaphors used in communication

ethnolinguistics the study of the relationship between language and culture; a subset of linguistic anthropology

fandom a group of people who collectively are fans of something or someone; considered to be a community of people

gendered speech different speech patterns based on the cultural expectations of each sex

honorifics linguistic ways to show honor or respect

imperialism a state or political entity’s attempt at exerting control over another territory or cultural group, often by force and/or violence

index sign an emotional expression that carries meaning directly related to the response

kinesics the cultural use of body movements, including gestures

language a symbolic system expressing meaning through sounds or gestures

language registers different styles of speaking within a single language

linguistic relativity principle the idea, studied by Benjamin Whorf, that the language one speaks shapes the way one sees the world

morpheme the smallest part of a word that conveys meaning

paralanguage the ways we express meaning through sounds beyond words alone; a subset of semantics

phonemics the study of how sounds convey meaning

phonetics the study of the sounds in human speech

pidgin a language formed when two groups lack a common language; uses limited vocabulary and grammar for mutual comprehension

pragmatics the context within which language occurs

proxemics the cultural use of space, including how close people stand to one another

semantics the study of how words and phrases are put together in meaningful ways

sign in communication, something that stands for something else

silent language the very specific set of non-verbal cues such as gestures, body movements, and facial expressions that is acquired by speakers of a language

speech verbal communication using sounds

speech community a group that shares language patterns

symbol something that stands for something else with little or no natural relationship to its referent; a type of sign

syntax the study of how units of speech are put together to create sentences

utterance an uninterrupted sequence of spoken or written language

vocalizations intentional sounds humans make to express themselves, but not actually words

voice qualities the background characteristics of a person’s voice, including pitch, rhythm, and articulation

Primate Communication and Human Language Origins

de Waal, F. B. (1992). Intentional deception in primates. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 1(3), 86-92.

King, B. J. (1999). Viewed from Up Close: Monkeys, Apes, and Language-Origins Theories. In Barbara J. King (Ed.), The Origins of Language: What Nonhuman Primates Can Tell Us (pp. 21-54). Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press.

Linguistics

Atkins, B. T., & Rundell, M. (2008). The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Bonvillain, N. (2003). Language, Culture, and Communication: The Meaning of Messages (4^th edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Rowe, B. M., & Levine, D. P. (2006). A Concise Introduction to Linguistics. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Silent Language

Hall, E. T. (1973). The Silent Language. New York, NY: Anchor Books.

Knapp, M.L., & Hall, J.A. (2002). Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction (5^th edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Ethnolinguistics/Sociolinguistics

Berlin, B., & Kay, P. (1991). Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Hill, Jane (1998). Language, race, and white public space. American Anthropologist 100 (3): 680–689.

Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (2003). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Lee, P. (1996). The Whorf Theory Complex: A Critical Reconstruction. Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins Publishing.

Livia, A., & Hall, K. (Eds.). (1997). Queerly Phrased: Language, Gender and Sexuality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Tannen, D. (2004). Rapport-talk and Report-talk. In G. Ferraro (Ed.), Classic Readings in Cultural Anthropology (pp. 13-17). Belmont, CA: Thompson Wadsworth.

Language Extinction and Revitalization

Fishman, J. A. (2001). Can Threatened Languages be Saved?: Reversing Language Shift, Revisited, A 21st Century Perspective. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.

Tsunoda, T. (2006). Language Endangerment and Language Revitalization: An Introduction. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter.

Language-Centered Ethnographies

Basso, K. (1996). Wisdom Sits in Places: Landscape and Language among the Western Apache. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press.

Meek, B.A. (2011). We are Our Language: An Ethnography of Language Revitalization in a Northern Athabaskan Community. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.

Woolard, K.A. (1989). Double Talk: Bilingualism and the Politics of Ethnicity in Catalonia. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Ethnologue by SIL International
ethnologue.com

The Language of Food (blog by Dan Jurafsky)
languageoffood.blogspot.com

National Geographic Enduring Voices Project on Endangered Languages
travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/enduring-voices

Society for Linguistic Anthropology (SLA)
linguisticanthropology.org

SLA Teaching Resources
teach.linguisticanthropology.org

UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger
unesco.org/culture/en/endangeredlanguages/atlas

Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights
egt.ie/udhr/udlr-en.html

1. What is the difference between human language and the communication that other animals use?

2. If you knew every word of a different language (including how to pronounce them), would that make you fluent? Why or why not?

3. How has human language evolved and changed since its origin?

4. Why would the area of paralanguage be of particular importance to someone learning how to do stand-up/live performances?

5. Do you agree with the linguistic relativity principle? Are there any examples from your own experience that support your position?

6. Think of some of the metaphors, proverbs, or other cultural models that you know. How do they reflect, through their language, your own culture?

7. Create a short conversation between a man and a woman, but flip the gendered expectations of stereotypical speech. Explain what you’ve created.

8. Imagine you are a spy that works in a foreign country. What types of linguistic knowledge would come in handy in your line of work and why?

9. Imagine a scenario where your language is in danger of dying out. What kind of ideas might be useful to prevent its extinction?

Answers

1. Your answer should acknowledge the basics of what makes human language unique and specify some of the reasons for this. It should also include how to define an index sign and what differentiates this from human language.

• Answers should acknowledge the basics of what makes human language unique and specify some of the reasons for this. It should also include how to define an index sign and what differentiates this from human language.
• Human language is not dependent on the present but can express abstract concepts like the future and other intangible things (it is overall a symbolic system).
• Brains: although similar, there are key differences in primates (such as strong neural connections between different areas). Humans are born with fully developed areas/territories of the brain to process language (Wernicke’s, Broca’s, Geshwind’s).
• Anatomy: human mouths and throats, while similar to those of primates, have more intricate musculature, as well as a descended tongue, smaller mouth, dropped larynx, elongated neck (allowing for control over breath and ability to make sounds).
• Primates can use symbolic language to a degree, such as for lying.

See pages 215-218 of your text.

2. By drawing on the issues of symbolism, phonetics, paralanguage/silent language, and more, the answer should be “no.” Knowing all the vocabulary does not mean one has understanding of how to arrange the words or the varying contexts and ways in which they can be used. Your answer should specify at least 2–3 of these topics and explain how mere vocabulary does not impart proxemic knowledge, for example, or semantics.

See pages 219-223 of your text.

3. This answer should provide some details on how it has shifted from what was likely a gestural language into a vocalized one (e.g., how bipedalism enabled this change). The ability to coordinate and cooperate in groups, as verbal language allows, would have been a key factor in this evolution. It should also discuss how index signs may have been used, but that comprehension of a symbolic system relies on specific brainpower. Define “syntax,” “semantics,” and “pragmatics,” and how non-human primates share some of these aspects. Also, because language is a constantly evolving thing, it is never fixed—digital forms of language covered in the text can be considered part of the ongoing evolution of language.

See pages 217-218 of your text.

4. This answer can vary, but should hit most of the points listed, and explain them in greater detail.

• Successful stand-up comedy and/or live performances rely heavily on things like timing, intonation, shared understandings with the audience, gestures, and more. Making sure the joke or statement resonates with the audience requires understanding their cultural and linguistic contexts. Moreover, they would need to effectively convey these meanings (imagine a robot reciting a comedy routine in monotone — a very different kind of performance!).
• Since paralanguage refers to all the ways that meaning can be expressed, beyond just in words, it would be very beneficial to learn if doing performances.
• Some of the specific areas you can choose to define in relation to this question are:
• Voice quality
• Vocalizations
• Silent language
• Proxemics
• Kinesics
• Touch and time

See pages 220-224 of your text.

5. This answer is flexible and can be justified either way; however, the principle needs to be defined and specific examples should be clearly set out and validated. The principle considers language to be intimately connected to culture, such that people who speak different languages may in fact experience the world in different ways. In what ways has language affected (or not) your own perspective?

• For example, an extreme version of this argument asserts that one’s language directly determines one’s worldview, suggesting that people are “locked” into seeing the world in certain ways. This kind of determinism could be countered by commenting on bilingual people or those who learn different languages later on in life, among other things.
• On the other hand, it is hard to deny that language does not impact our perception of the world in some way. The example in the text discusses cattle vocabulary, but your answer may be something else altogether.

See pages 224-226 of your text.

6. This answer requires the definition and understanding of what a lingua franca is, as well as the application of it in a different form, i.e., that of digital spheres. It is flexible, in that a yes or no could be correct; what matters is how you justify the answer.

• For example, you could make an argument that emoticons and lolspeak are already forms of lingua franca, allowing people around the world to communicate and share understandings.
• On the other hand, can emoticons be considered a full language in the sense of having syntax, etc.? What exactly is required of a lingua franca to be effective?

See pages 226–228 of your text. (First edition of the book)

7. Example:

Joe: Gee, the weather is lovely outside today, don’t you think? [A tag question, decreasing its forcefulness, combined with an instance of “Ah, shucks” vocabulary, “Gee,” generally ascribed to women.]

Jill: It won’t last. [A report-style, taciturn reply.]

Joe: Well, I think it would be great to try and enjoy it. Perhaps you want to have a picnic with me? [An accommodating question trying to establish rapport, with a qualifier of “perhaps.”]

Jill: *grunts* Eh, fuck it, sure. [Non-verbal “manly” sound, with swearing.]

See pages 228-229 of your text.

8. There are many different ways to frame this answer, but it should include as many issues and topics as possible. It should demonstrate a familiarity with the definitions, as well as show you are well versed in the breadth of language beyond mere words, as spying is a tricky business.

• Speech communities — it would be important to know the specifics of the way people communicate in whatever region you’re spying on, whether it’s a geographic region or a group of people/subculture.
• Code switching, registers — understanding how people talk in different groups will help you blend in (not to mention get better information for your reports).
• Is there a lingua franca? If so, that should be known for all spies, lest you miss critical information going down in a business deal. Spies would also hopefully know of pidgin and creole languages in their area.
• Gendered speech — the country you work in might have very different expectations of you depending on what spy outfit you are wearing/who you are trying to pass as.
• Paralanguage, including silent language, space, touch, and time are all critical as you wouldn’t want to give away your cover by not knowing the norms of the language and people around you. (Standing too close to people when trying to overhear, or exclaiming inappropriate vocalizations, etc.)

See pages 220-223, 228-231 of your text.

9. This answer will be flexible and dependent on your experiences and ideas. Ideally, through trying to come up with workable and relevant solutions, the varying ways that languages can go extinct will need to be defined and understood. It also shifts the focus to seeing how languages currently in decline can be revitalized.

• In your example/case, what is the catalyst for your language’s decline?
• Is there a lack of speakers due to genocide?
• Are the next generation of children not being taught (or are they not allowed to speak it because of assimilation policies)?
• Is your language being eschewed in favor of a more international or popular language?
• Or is your language being adapted to a significant degree, so much so that it is evolving into something else?
• Solutions are dependent on the cause; utilizing the internet to reach younger generations won’t work if a genocide is taking place, for example.
• Also, in coming up with a solution, you may find it helpful to think about what would be lost should your language go extinct—what perspectives and experiences does your language capture, without which the world would be worse off?

See pages 233-236 of your text.

1. Language is a symbolic system because

• a) it is impacted by a person’s biology, culture, and contextual factors.
• b) vocalizations are instinctual.
• c) words are not physical items.
• d) of its inherent power dynamics.

2. Syntax, semantics, and pragmatics

• a) are unique aspects of human language.
• b) have been used to some degree by non-human primates.
• c) necessitate free use of the hands (i.e., bipedalism is a prerequisite).
• d) are used in some degree by all animals who use forms of communication.

3. Which part of this sentence is not a morpheme? “The textbooks I’m carrying are so heavy!”

• a) s (from “textbooks”)
• b) s (from “so”)
• c) The
• d) I

4. If you are a mediator in an international dispute, it is important to learn the regional silent language because

• a) although basic human movements (like nodding one’s head up and down for “yes”) are always consistent across cultures, some other movements can mean different things.
• b) most verbalized languages have a parallel gestural language.
• c) silent languages are how most international business is conducted.
• d) even basic movements have different meanings in different cultures.

5. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, which considers language to affect the way people experience the world, is also known as

• a) the linguistic relativity principle.
• b) paralanguage.
• c) pseudolinguistics.
• d) the vocalization method.

6. According to language studies, metaphors are

• a) only useful when comprehensive context is known about the speaker.
• b) the keystone to understanding syntax.
• c) meaningless.
• d) a fundamental feature of how we describe our experiences.

7. You want to forward information from an email from a close friend to one of your professors, but first you want to edit out certain words (e.g., most of the slang and swear words that your friend is so fond of). What are you doing?

• a) Changing from an informal register to a formal register.
• b) Changing from a formal register to an informal register.
• c) Changing from code switching to registering a code.
• d) Changing the inherent meaning of the message through digital kinesics.

8. Approximately what percentage of languages spoken in the world are listed as in danger of dying out?

• a) 51% (4,900 in total)
• b) 35% (850 in total)
• c) 29% (2,000 in total)
• d) 4% (330 in total)

9. Which of the following choices is not an example of a tag question?

• a0 “Did you study for the exam last night?”
• b) “It’s going to be a hard final, don’t you think?”
• c) “You’ve read the book, haven’t you?”
• d) “This won’t take too long, will it?”

Answers

1. c

Feedback: Language is about expressing meaning through words (whether verbal, gestural, or textual), and words themselves are abstract notions

See page 214.

2. b

Feedback: Meaningful communication actions by chimpanzees can be said to have syntax and semantics (grammar that affects meaning). In addition, the choice of what gestures and calls are used at what times are shaped by the relationship between the two individuals. Therefore, these forms of communication also contain essential aspects of pragmatics (contextual meaning).

See pages 215-217.

3. b

Feedback: A morpheme is the smallest part of a word that conveys meaning. The “s” in textbooks denotes a plural, changing its meaning, whereas the “s” in so is a sound and cannot be separated from the “o” and still carry meaning. Morphemes differ from phonemes in that a single morpheme may contain several sounds.

See page 219.

4. d

Feedback: Silent language refers to the very specific set of non-verbal cues such as gestures, body movements, and facial expressions that are acquired by speakers of a language. Because silent language can be entirely different, it can easily be misunderstood if used incorrectly. A gesture with a positive connotation in one region of the world may mean something offensive in another. Even so-called basic movements like a head nod can mean very different things in different places.

See pages 221-222.

5. a

Feedback: The principle considers language to be intimately connected to culture, such that people who speak different languages may in fact experience the world in distinct ways (parallel to cultural relativity conceptualizations). It was first researched by Benjamin Lee Whorf under the guidance of his mentor, Edward Sapir.

See page 224.

6. d

Feedback: Language contains a set of cultural models that reflect our thought patterns and guide our behavior. It follows that the models also determine the metaphors we use to talk about our experience. In this case, metaphor is not merely decorative, but is a fundamental aspect of the way we organize our experience.

See page 226.

7. a

Feedback: In the process of code switching, different styles of speaking are called registers. In this case you are editing an informal type of speech from your friend to a more formal format, demonstrating the differing levels of intimacy/relationship.

See pages 229-231.

8. c

Feedback: According to Ethnologue (Lewis 2013), just under 7,000 languages are currently spoken in the world. About 2,000 of them are listed at the time of this writing as “in danger.” Because 90 per cent of those languages already in danger have fewer than 100,000 speakers, the twenty-first century may see a severe increase in language extinction.

See page 233.

9. a

Feedback: A tag is added to the end of a statement that turns it into a question, decreasing its forcefulness.

See page 229.