In this chapter, students will learn:

• about the variety of stable marriage and family patterns across cultures.
• about different rules for taking one or multiple spouses.
• the correlates of different kinds of family and residence patterns.
• about marriage as an economic exchange between families, requiring compensation.
• how different societies trace their family lineages.
• that ideas about gender are cultural constructions, while the idea of sex is a biological one.
• that a variety of gender identities exist on a spectrum.

Introduction
Marriage practices, family organization, and gender roles vary throughout the world.

Marriage
Marriage can be defined by three basic characteristics: sexual relations that are sanctioned by society, a division of labor in the household with shared economic resources, and the social legitimacy and legal rights of children from the union.

Spouses: How Many and Who Is Eligible?
Marriage unions may be monogamous, polygynous, polyandrous, or other, based on and intertwined with the larger structures in society. Cultural rules dictate whether marriages should be exogamous or endogamous, with the exception of incest, a type of close endogamy that is generally taboo.

Family Residence Patterns
A household consists of people who contribute to child rearing, inheritance, and the production and consumption of goods. Nuclear families live in neolocal households, and extended families live in patrilocal or matrilocal households, depending upon the marriage patterns.

Marriage as Economic Exchange
The exchange of spouses usually requires some form of economic compensation or sharing of resources, based on which extended family household welcomes the new couple. When the bride leaves her family of orientation, bride price or bride service may be required. When the groom leaves his family of orientation or a couple takes up neolocal residence, a dowry may be required. Arranged marriages have been the norm for most of human history and are still practiced today in societies around the world.

Kinship
Kinship carries a set of roles based on family relationships, including fictive ones. Descent may be reckoned unilineally or bilaterally.

Gender Roles: Patterned by Culture
Sex is biologically assigned, while gender is socially constructed. Therefore, gender roles vary widely across cultures, encompassing different ideals of masculinity and femininity. Gender identity is the private experience of one’s identification with one’s assigned sex, while sexual orientation is the sexual or romantic attraction to another person. Some societies accept the existence of third and fourth genders, such as the hijras of India.

Sexual Identity
Homosexual orientation is commonly found across cultures and throughout history, although it is less accepted in those societies with strict religious laws. Diverse sexual identities include bisexual, pansexual, polysexual, and asexual, among others. Culturally-specific body modifications may be used to make a person more appealing to their preferred sexual partners.

1. What are the different marriage and family types that exist across cultures?

2. What are the biocultural benefits of exogamy?

3. What types of compensation are given in different marriage exchanges?

4. What is the difference between sex and gender?

5. How are the identities of a gay person, a transgender person, and a nonbinary or gender fluid person different?

1. What makes a “good family?”

2. Are marriage tendencies in North America exogamous or endogamous? Why?

3. What do you think about the division of traits in the Bem Sex-Role Inventory? If you were to create a modern version of the Inventory, how might it be different?

4. From your perspective, how is reading the graphic panel called “Research in Pain” different than reading a textual description of the same thing?

5. What are ways in which colleges and universities have made campuses safer for LGBTQ+ students, faculty, and staff?

affinal related by marriage

allele an alternate form of a gene

androgynous gender neutral; in the middle of the gender spectrum

androphilia the romantic or sexual attraction to males

arranged marriage the practice in which parents find a suitable husband or wife for their child

asexual without sexual desires

assigned sex at birth the sex label (usually male or female) that a medical practitioner gives to an infant at birth by assessing their outer appearance

bilateral descent the act of tracing one’s genealogy through both the mother’s and father’s line

binary having two parts; in gender studies, it refers to a two-gender system of masculine males and feminine females

bisexual attracted romantically or sexually to both males and females

body modification the practice of altering the body for reasons of identity, attractiveness, or social status

bride price a form of marriage compensation in which the family of the groom is required to present valuable gifts to the bride’s family

bride service a form of marriage compensation in which the groom is required to work for the bride’s family

caste system a system of social stratification in India in which a person is born into a hereditary group traditionally linked to certain occupations

child marriage the practice in which parents marry young girls to older men who offer to provide for them

cisgender a term to describe people who internally experience and/or express their gender identity as aligned with their assigned sex

clan a social division that separates members of a society into two groups; also called a moiety

consanguineal related by blood

descent group a social group of people who trace their descent from a particular ancestor

dowry a form of marriage compensation in which the family of the bride is required to present valuable gifts to the groom’s family or to the couple

dowry death deaths of women in the homes of their in-laws due to unmet dowry demands

endogamy the practice of marrying within one’s social or ancestral group

exogamy the practice of marrying outside one’s social or ancestral group

extended family a family unit consisting of blood-related members and their spouses; a mix of consanguineal and affinal kin

Fair Trade a social and economic model aimed to support food and craft producers in developing countries by promoting equity and fair pricing

family of orientation blood-related family members, including parents, siblings, grandparents, and other relatives

family of procreation the family unit created by marriage or partnership, including spouses/partners and children

fictive kinship including non-blood relations in the family with all the expectations of blood-related family members

forced marriage the practice in which parents demand their child marry someone the parents have chosen

gender a person’s internal experience of their identity as male, female, both, or neither, as well as the expression of that identity in social behavior

gender dysphoria the experience that one’s gender identity does not match one’s assigned sex at birth

gender fluid gender identity that lies in the middle of the spectrum, non-binary or changing

gender identity a person’s internal experience of their identity as male, female, both, or neither, as well as the expression of that identity in social behavior

gender queer gender identity that lies in the middle of the spectrum, sometimes used as an umbrella term to signify “not cisgender”

gender roles the culturally appropriate or expected roles of individuals in society

gender spectrum the varieties of gender identity that exist on a continuum

gynophilia the romantic or sexual attraction to females

heterosexuality the romantic or sexual attraction or sexual behavior between partners of the opposite sex

hijra a third-gender role found in India and Pakistan in which male-bodied or intersexed individuals adopt female mannerisms and dress

homosexuality the romantic or sexual attraction or sexual behavior between partners of the same sex

household a domestic unit of residence in which members contribute to child rearing, inheritance, and the production and consumption of goods

incest taboo prohibition against sexual relations with immediate family members

intersex having a combination of physiologic or morphological elements of both sexes

kinship family relations; involves a complex set of expectations and responsibilities

lineagea line of descent from a common ancestor

Margaret Mead pioneering figure in early cultural anthropology; one of the first female anthropologists to undertake long-term fieldwork

marriage the practice of creating socially and legally recognized partnerships in society

marriage compensation gifts or service exchanged between the families of a bride and groom

matrilineal descent tracing one’s genealogy through the mother’s line

matrilocal a residence pattern in which a husband moves to his wife’s household of orientation

monogamy the marriage practice of having a single spouse

neolocal a residence pattern in which a husband and wife move to their own household after marriage

nuclear family a family unit consisting of two generations, most often parents and their children

nurture kinship non-blood relationships based on mutual caring and attachment

pansexual not limited in romantic or sexual attraction by sex or gender; polysexual

patrilineal descent tracing one’s genealogy through the father’s line

patrilocal a residence pattern in which a wife moves to her husband’s household of orientation

polyandry the marriage practice of having two or more husbands at the same time

polygamy the marriage practice of having two or more spouses

polygyny the marriage practice of having two or more wives at the same time

polysexual not limited in romantic or sexual attraction by sex or gender; pansexual

rites of passage rituals marking life’s important transitions from one social or biological role to another

scarification inscribing scars on the body as a marker of identity

serial monogamy the marriage practice of taking a series of partners, one after the other

sex the biological and physiological differences of human beings based on sex chromosomes, hormones, reproductive structures, and external genitalia

sexual orientation the romantic or sexual attraction to another person

sexuality romantic or physical attraction to another person

sharia law scriptural guidelines for Muslim religious adherents to follow

third gender a gender role accepted in some societies as combining elements of male and female genders

transgender a term used to describe people who internally experience and/or express their gender identity as different from their assigned sex at birth

two-spirit a Native American person who identifies as a third-gender occupying a role between males and females with characteristics of each

unilineal descent tracing one’s genealogy through either the mother’s or father’s line

Marriage, Family, Kinship

Carsten, J. (2000). Cultures of Relatedness: New Approaches to the Study of Kinship. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Pasternak, B., Ember, C., & Ember, M. (1997). Sex, Gender, and Kinship. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Scheper-Hughes, N. (1993). Death Without Weeping: The Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil. Oakland, CA: University of California Press

Schneider, D. (1968). American Kinship: A Cultural Account. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Seymour, S.C. (1999). Women, Family, and Child Care in India: A World in Transition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Shostak, M. (1981). Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Gender and Sexuality

Counihan, C.M. (2004). Around the Tuscan Table: Family and Gender in Twentieth Century Florence. New York, NY: Routledge Press.

Friedl, E. (1978). Society and sex roles. Human Nature 1:8-75.

Gutmann, M.C. (1996). The Meanings of Macho: Being a Man in Mexico City. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.

Kahn, M. (1986). Always Hungry, Never Greedy: Food and the Expression of Gender in a Melanesian Society. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.

Ortner, S.B., & Whitehead, H. (1981). Sexual Meanings: The Cultural Construction of Gender and Sexuality. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Nanda, S. (1999). Gender Diversity: Crosscultural Variations. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.

Nanda, S. (1998). Neither Man nor Woman: The Hijras of India. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Neill, J. (2011). The Origins and Role of Same-Sex Relations in Human Societies. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

American Anthropological Association Statement on Marriage and the Family
aaanet.org/issues/policy-advocacy/Statement-on-Marriage-and-the-Family.html

“Anthropology, Sex, Gender, Sexuality: Gender is a Social Construction” (Jason Antrosio, Living Anthropologically)
livinganthropologically.com/2012/05/16/anthropology-sex-gender-sexuality-social-constructions

Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) online test
psytoolkit.org/survey-library/sex-role-bem.html

Cultural Anthropology/Marriage, Reproduction, and Kinship (open access wikibook)
en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cultural_Anthropology/Marriage,_Reproduction_and_Kinship

Encyclopedia.com – Hijras
encyclopedia.com/topic/Hijra.aspx

“Gay Marriage and Anthropology” (Linda S. Stone, Anthropology News)
doi.org/10.1111/an.2004.45.5.10

Intersex Society of North America
isna.org

Marriage Systems: Anthropology Tutorial (Brian Schwimmer, University of Manitoba)
umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/anthropology/tutor/marriage/toc.html

1. What kind of marriage is the norm in your family? If you could change it, would you? Why or why not?

2. Why is it important that the AAA responded to President Bush’s amendment in 2004? How does anthropology thus help inform better policy?

3. What is the difference between exogamy and endogamy? What are their relative advantages and disadvantages?

4. How are comfort foods similar to marriage or incest taboos?

5. How would you describe your family/kin and your residence patterns? Can you think of a situation where that could change?

6. Imagine you are a woman about to marry, and you can choose between a system where there is a bride price or a dowry. Which would you choose and why?

7. Are there any similarities between contemporary dating practices in North America and arranged marriages?

8. Why are someone’s gender identity and sexual orientation unknown at birth?

9. Discuss some of the consequences that might arise in various marriage practices if a third gender is introduced (when none existed before).

10. What is the purpose of marriage?

Answers

1. This answer depends on your individual circumstances, but it should correctly identify (and define) some of the types of marriage listed in the text. Whether or not you find it to be personally the most suitable marriage arrangement depends on the specifics you choose to focus on, but should be justified. A hypothetical answer is below, briefly explained (your answer should elaborate with more details).

• Serial monogamy seems to be the norm in my family. This means that people partner with others, one at a time, but do not tend to stay married very long. This could be because they fall in romantic love without realizing that their personalities for long-term cohabitation are at odds with one another. They all have kids, so the families grow exponentially each time they marry someone else. It is nice for the kids to have so many playmates that are half-siblings, but the legal proceedings get complicated. Instead, it would be interesting if a form of arranged group marriage, or polygamy, was the norm for us. That way, instead of people having to always split up their belongings and figure out arrangements for the kids, we could all be a large family. And since it would be arranged by those who care about our well-being, it would likely be with people with whom we share core values.

See pages 272-277 of your text.

2. This answer draws on the significance of how anthropology can contribute to contemporary policies by providing better information regarding cultural norms and practices. It was erroneous of Bush to generalize marriage as he did (you should spell out here what he got wrong), and the responding statement corrected that misinformation. You can include specifics as to why you agree or disagree, but the main points—relating to the variety of households and marriage forms that exist—should be covered in this answer. Similarly, you may wish to draw on issues of human rights when discussing how anthropological insights can assist with better governance structures and procedures (especially when cultural relativity is taught at a young age).

See page 257 of your text.

3. This answer is relatively straightforward and should demonstrate your ability to define the relative terms and explore how their main characteristics can be advantageous and/or detrimental, given specific contexts. You should not apply your own personal beliefs or opinions here, such as saying that one is always better than the other. It is critical to note that certain contexts make different processes more desirable or beneficial.

• Exogamy is the practice in which marriage partners must come from different groups. Depending on the cultural norms, a person’s choice of marriage partners may be required to be outside of one’s clan or lineage.
• Socially, this practice links families from different communities together, creating alliances.
• Bio-culturally, it acts to broaden the gene pool of any intermarrying group. This limits the possibility for inbreeding and leads to more genetic diversity.
• However, this practice means that inheritances, power, land holdings, community resources, and much more are spread thinner than if marriage partners come from the same group.
• It also means that those being married may come from very different backgrounds with different expectations regarding their roles and beliefs.
• When societies require that marriage partners come from the same group in society, this is called endogamy. Endogamous marriage can be seen in societies with strong ethnic, religious, or socio-economic class divisions in which individuals tend to marry within their groups.
• This practice supports the survival of the group into the future, since the people being married have similar identities, core values, ideologies, etc. This could be especially important for a marginalized group or one whose existence is threatened in some way.
• Historically, sisters and brothers have married to preserve the royal bloodlines of ruling families. Sibling marriages keep the ruling power within the family. Brothers and sisters would marry so that their pure-blooded heirs would retain divine authority.
• However, close endogamy reduces genetic diversity. This increases the risk of the expression of harmful recessive genes. This can lead to devastating effects for the group if diseases are severe.
• Endogamy also reduces the potential to create new allies and relationships outside one’s group, which can be a negative thing depending on context.

See pages 275-276 of your text.

4. You should be able to identify that all three are cultural universals, in that they exist in some form. This answer should include definitions and a familiarity with all the topics. However, it is critical to note that while all three exist in some form, those forms vary dramatically depending on region and context.

• Comfort food varies from person to person as well as from culture to culture.
• Marriage is practiced in some form all around the world, solving the basic problem of human relationships and procreation.
• Incest taboos also vary, but immediate family taboos are held by societies throughout the world (even in places where it is the norm for royalty to marry each other).

See pages 270-272 of your text.

5. This answer is dependent on your own circumstances and perspectives, but tests your ability to understand all the possible answers in identifying your own. Moreover, you should be able to extrapolate possible scenarios or situations where this could change, emphasizing the fact that even known things like family are affected by culture and context. The following answer is only a brief summary of some of the points that could be hit upon in your own answer.

• Currently, I call six people my immediate family: my mother and father, my grandmother, my two siblings, and my aunt. We all live together in an extended family setting, all of us consanguineal. However, two options will likely change this in the future. First, my mom, dad, siblings, and I are hoping to live in our own home soon, which would make us neolocal. Also, if I get married one day, I doubt I’ll still live at home. I might even move in with my partner’s family (matrilocal or patrilocal residence).

See pages 277-280, and 284-285 of your text.

6. This answer depends on your own perspective but should demonstrate that you understand fully each option and you need to justify your choice. Explain the options, how they are used, and where you might end up living.

• A bride price is when the husband’s family compensates the bride’s family for essentially “losing” a daughter. This is because she represents support and labor for a household and will likely bear children for the husband’s family line.
• A dowry is when the bride’s family essentially gives the newlyweds or the husband’s family her share of an inheritance, depending on the circumstances. This could happen when the woman lives in a neolocal residence with her husband, so the money is used for their own future, or it could be in a patrilocal residence where her dowry ensures that she has upward mobility in her marriage.

See pages 263-266 of your text.

7. Your answer should describe each of the two processes, noting areas of similarity and difference.

• Dating practices (your experience may vary):
• Blind dates/set up by friends or family.
• Meeting online, meeting through work.
• Courtship, dating norms (dinner, movies, walks on beaches?), the “relationship discussion.”
• Possible cohabitation.
• Engagement period prior to marriage.
• Arranged marriages:
• Parents setting up potential matches (or other close relatives).
• Potential partners coming from known backgrounds with similar ideologies.
• Retain the right to veto a choice.
• Marriage Meets/community registries, online sites.
• “Love matches.”
• Exchanging photos and information.
• “Bride viewings” and contemporary forms of dating.

See pages 280-283 of your text.

8. This answer should define three aspects – even though only two are specifically referenced, the third is key as well – and how they relate to one another (or not).

• Biological sex: a binary, though intersex complicates the distinctions.
• Gender identity: whether you identify as male, female, or with a third gender. This is unrelated to biological sex, in that it is not a causal relationship. Most humans who identify as men are born with male genitalia (thus, biologically male), but this does not mean that all biological males will consider themselves men.
• Sexual orientation: this is far beyond a binary of homosexual and heterosexual, and includes bisexuality, pansexuality, polysexuality, and asexuality. Furthermore, androphilia and gynophilia are relevant terms.
• All have bearing on one another, but no one can ascertain someone’s gender or sexuality simply by noting their biological sex at birth.

See pages 286-288, 294-296 of your text.

9. This answer relies on understanding the definitions of different marriage practices and gender identities. It should raise the issue that most marriage systems are predicated on a binary gender system, which is why a third gender can complicate things. However, there are examples in the text that help illustrate how marriage can still function just fine (if not better) with a third gender in the mix.

• Marriage is the relationship of people in sharing a household and raising children. This doesn’t need only one man and one woman, as other forms demonstrate (polygamy, etc.).
• A third gender is neither male nor female but has elements of each.

See pages 270-272, 288-294 of your text.

10. This answer should identify the three key elements as listed in the text and explain their function in furthering human culture and society.

• Sex — sexual relations within a marriage partnership are sanctioned by society. This does not mean monogamy is the norm; rather, there are rules and these rules vary depending on culture. The process of marriage is meant to reinforce whatever that culture sees as healthy and beneficial.
• Labor — marriage regulates the tasks that women and men are expected to perform in society. Some of these are biological, such as childbirth and nursing of infants. However, most of the expectations about what work men and women will do are based on cultural values of what is appropriate. This sexual division of labor contributes to the group’s survival because although men and women perform different tasks, resources will be shared.
• Children — Socially sanctioned marriage and family structure, in whatever form it may take, help provide the kind of environment that supports child development.

See page 270-272 of your text.

1. Marriage is a cultural universal because

• a) culture cannot survive without it, since it enables the procreation of children and therefore the next generation.
• b) all humans experience marriage at some point in their lives, even if the form differs region to region.
• c) even if people do not agree with it, marriage has been an unchanging process for millennia.
• d) although its form differs across cultures, all societies practice some kind of partnership arrangement regarding sexual coupling, household duties, and children.

2. Monogamy between a man and woman is

• a) a common form of marriage, but far from the only kind.
• b) the only authentic form of marriage, although other kinds of partnerships exist.
• c) the least common form of marriage, practiced by only a few societies.
• d) considered to be the ideal partnership in all societies.

3. Which of the following is an example of polygany?

• a) Two men married to one woman.
• b) One man married to four women.
• c) Two men married to each other.
• d) One woman and two men all married to each other.

4. An advantage of exogamy practices includes

• a) a strengthened government or ruling system, such as consolidating and retaining power through a royal bloodline.
• b) the ability of a group to withstand assimilation or marginalization because of their strong religious or ethnic identity.
• c) a decreased likelihood that negative genetic mutations will accumulate, because there is more genetic diversity.
• d) how people are able to partner with those they love, but they may also choose to separate/divorce and have further partners without societal judgment.

5. If your mother-in-law asks if the two of you are considered consanguineal kin, you would reply,

• a. “Of course, we have been family members since I married your son/daughter.”
• b. “Yes, because your daughter/son and I have produced children.”
• c. “No, we are not related by blood.”
• d. “Not yet, but after I move into your house, we will be.”

6. You are a new bride and belong to a patrilocal, extended family society. Who is likely to be in your new household?

• a. Your husband’s parents, as well as your husband’s brother, his wife (your sister-in-law), and their child.
• b. Your grandparents, and two of your cousins.
• c. Your husband’s siblings (one brother and one sister), and their respective spouses and children.
• d. Your mother and father, plus your sister, her husband, and their three children.

7. Which of the following was not an example of a bride price, as described in the text?

• a. Crafts sewn by the bride.
• b. Yams.
• c. Cattle.
• d. Labor (by the husband/groom).

8. In Mumbai, what form of marriage is now more likely to take place?

• a. Forced marriage, with the children of the union having no say in the matter.
• b. Romantic elopements, where families are not consulted and the new couple consummate their union before objections can be made.
• c. Child marriage, where young girls are typically betrothed to older men.
• d. A hybrid between arranged and romantic, incorporating aspects of each.

9. You are creating a family tree showing your ancestry. On it, you have your mother and father, your aunts and uncles on your father’s side, your father’s parents (your grandparents), and your grandfather’s parents (your great-grandparents). This kind of geneaology is

• a. matrilineal.
• b. patrilineal.
• c. bilateral.
• d. totem descent group.

10. The relationship between gender and sexual orientation is

• a. inextricably intertwined, as they are dependent on one another.
• b. a simple cause-and-effect process.
• c. separate, although both are influenced by biology and cultural norms.
• d. based solely on biological imperatives.

Answers

1. d

Feedback: All cultures practice some form of marriage, even though the customs and forms of it vary widely. Cultural universals solve the basic problems of being human and living in society, including organizing food, shelter, and procreation.

See pages 270-271.

2. a

Feedback: Marriages between two people are frequently opposite-sex unions, but there are many other kinds of exclusive partnerships (monogamy requires exclusivity).

See page 272-273 and Glossary.

3. b

Feedback: Polygyny is a marriage arrangement that includes more than one wife at the same time.

See page 273-274 and Glossary.

4. c

Feedback: Exogamy is the practice in which marriage partners must come from different groups.

See page 275-276 and Glossary.

5. c

Feedback: Consanguineal means to be related by blood.

See page 278 and Glossary.

6.a

Feedback: When wives join their husbands’ families of orientation after marriage, it is called patrilocal residence. In an extended family, blood-related members will bring their spouses to live with their family of orientation. This creates a household that is a mix of people related by marriage (affinal kin) and by blood (consanguineal kin).

See page 278-279 and Glossary.

7. a

Feedback: Crafts and textiles are actually an example of a dowry, wherein the bride and her family gift the husband’s family items.

See page 280-282.

8. d

Feedback: Arranged marriages are still a norm, but they are incorporating more and more of the children’s wishes (such as for romantic love).

See page 283.

9. b

Feedback: Patrilineal descent is traced through the father’s bloodline.

See pages 285 and Glossary.

10. c

Feedback: Both gender and sexual identities and expressions may be formed through interactions with others in society, yet they are also influenced—not solely caused by—biological factors. One’s gender cannot predict one’s sexual orientation (or vice versa).

See page 286.