In this chapter students will learn:

• how societies maintain order and stability within their own borders and with other societies
• why and how societies use power and controls differently.
• the differences between societies with uncentralized governments and those with centralized governments.
• the characteristics of bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states.
• how power is used to create inequality based on gender and access to resources./li>
• about the different types of violent conflict within and between societies.

Introduction
Political organization refers to the way a society guides the behavior of its members and manages affairs with other societies.

Power, Authority, and Prestige
Individuals and groups may control others through power, authority, prestige, or some combination of the three. They may be used positively or negatively.

Social Controls and Conflict Resolution
The behavior of individuals or groups in society may be guided by internalized or externalized controls (sanctions). They may be used positively or negatively.

Types of Political Organization
Although the reality is complex, we use the four types of political organization as a starting point to discuss politics in society: bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states. Bands and tribes are decentralized systems, in which the community governs itself through informal sanctions. Chiefdoms and states are centralized systems, in which official leadership has the power and authority to control the actions of others.

Social Inequality
Social stratification arises when some individuals have more access to resources than others. The individual’s status may be achieved, such as in a class system, or ascribed, such as in a caste system. There are many forms of social inequality, including gender inequality, in which women generally lack the same access to status that men possess, and environmental inequality, in which certain members of society lack access to unpolluted natural resources, such as water.

Violence and War
There are many forms of inter- and intra-group violence across cultures; however, full-scale war comes into existence only with the rise of cities and surpluses of wealth. Although humans are a violent species, anthropologists do not believe that violence resides in our genes. Humans choose to go to war for political, religious, and economic reasons; we are not “programmed” for violence.

1. What are the differences between power, prestige, and authority?

2. How do sanctions and rewards work to control people’s behavior within a society?

3. What are the differences between uncentralized and centralized governing systems?

4. What are the characteristics of the four types of political systems?

5. What are the differences between class and caste societies?

6. What are the effects of gender stratification?

7. What are the different types of violent conflict, and in which types of societies are they usually seen?

1. In your view, what would be a good use of power?

2. How do people come to accept power inequality or differential access to resources as normal?

3. Although we generally classify Western nations using categories of class, not caste, do you see evidence for caste-like discrimination as well? What are the differences?

4. Due to the unequal demands on water for growing food crops and raising animals, what would you suggest as an optimum diet for human beings in the future?

achieved status a social role a person achieves due to work and opportunity

ascribed status a social role of a person that is fixed at birth

authority having legitimate power by law

band a small egalitarian society of food foragers who live and travel together

Big Man an informal leader who possesses authority based on prestige and persuasive power, found in Melanesian societies

caste a hierarchical system based on birth; most commonly associated with Hindu India

centralized system a political system with a centralized governing body that has the power and authority to govern

chiefdom a type of political organization found in settlements of typically from a few thousand to tens of thousands of people, characterized by social inequality and hereditary leadership, and based on horticulture

class a form of social stratification based on differences in wealth and status

cultural materialism a framework for understanding society that is directly related to whatever adaptations are necessary to survive in its environment

diplomacy the relations and negotiations between nations

essential workers people who governments around the globe have deemed crucial for the functioning of society amid the COVID-19 pandemic

ethnic cleansing violent and aggressive intergroup conflicts in which one group attempts to commit genocide of the other

euphemisms polite or socially acceptable words or phrases that are used in place of ones that are unpleasant or offensive

externalized controls rules that regulate behavior by encouraging conformity to social norms; may be negative (punishments) or positive (rewards)

feud ongoing violent relations between two groups in the same society

frontline workers a subset of employees, usually in the medical field, who are at greater risk for contracting COVID-19 because of the nature of their work; this type of work usually entails direct contact with people, including COVID-19 patients

gender discrimination the apparent or real dominance of men and subordinate status of women in society

gender stratification the hierarchical division of males and females in society

genocide the death of an entire ethnic group

guilt culture a culture that focuses on one’s own sense of right and wrong and the punishment that can result from breaking the rules

internalized controls impulses that guide a person toward right behavior based on a moral system

political organization the way a society maintains order internally and manages affairs externally

power the ability to compel another person to do something that he or she would not do otherwise

prestige the positive reputation or high regard of a person or other entity merited by actions, wealth, authority, or status

privatization selling ownership of public resources to private companies

raid violence in which members of one group aim to steal or recover items, animals, or people from another group in the same society

ranked society a society in which prestige and authority are inherited through families

reservesland set aside for Canada’s First Nations peoples; in the United States, these areas are called reservations

sanction punishment that results from breaking rules

sectarian violence a form of violence inspired by different sects (ideological or religious groups) in the same society

shame culture a culture in which conformity to social expectations stems from wanting to live up to others’ expectations

social mobility the ability of members of society to rise in social class

social stratification the ranking of members of society into a hierarchy

sodality group that brings people together through common concerns, age, or interests

state a type of political organization in a highly populated, industrial society with strong centralized government

stratified society based on a hierarchy in which certain groups have access to resources and power while others do not

tribe a type of political organization with a decentralized power structure, often seen among horticulturalists or pastoralists

uncentralized system a political system with no centralized governing body in which decisions are made by the community

warfare an extended violent conflict in which one side attempts to kill as many people or destroy as much property as possible until the other side surrenders

Black, J.K. (1999). Inequity in the Global Village. Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press.

Bodley, J. (2008). Victims of Progress (5^th edition). Lanham, MD: Altamira Press.

Briggs, J.L. (2000). Conflict Management in a Modern Inuit Community. In Hunters and Gatherers in the Modern World: Conflict, Resistance, and Self-Determination. New York, NY: Berghahn Books.

Gibbs, J.L. (1963). The Kpelle moot: A therapeutic model for the informal settlement of disputes. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 33(1):1-11.

Hass, J. (Ed.) (1990). The Anthropology of War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Howell, S., & Willis, R. (1989). Societies at Peace: An Anthropological Perspective. New York, NY: Routledge.

Hurst, C.E. (1992). Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Newman, K.S. (1983). Law and Economic Organization: A Comparative Study of Pre-Industrial Societies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Vincent, J. (2002). The Anthropology of Politics: A Reader in Ethnography, Theory, and Critique. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.

Ethnographies of Power and Politics

Bourgois, P. (1995). Selling Crack in El Barrio. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Brandes, S. (1988). Power and Persuasion: Fiestas and Social Control in Rural Mexico. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Meggett, M. (1977). Blood Is Their Argument. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield Publishing.

Association for Political and Legal Anthropology (APLA)
politicalandlegalanthro.org

Death Penalty Information Center
deathpenaltyinfo.org

Oxford Bibliographies – Political Anthropology
oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199766567/obo-9780199766567-0018.xml

United Nations Human Rights Home Page
un.org/en/rights

United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights
un.org/en/documents/udhr

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/DRIPS_en.pdf

1. What aspects of political organization are relevant to anthropologists?

2. What is the difference between coercive and persuasive power?

3. How might belonging to certain sodalities affect conflict-resolving processes in bands, tribes, chiefdoms, or states?

4. As the leader of a society, would you rather have authority or prestige if you are involved in an intergroup conflict like war?

5. Are internalized or externalized controls more efficient in shame and/or guilt cultures? Why?

6. Which of Elman Service’s categories contain centralized forms of government? What are some advantages and disadvantages to centralized governments in each?

7. What kinds of power relations are used in socially stratified societies?

8. Describe two roles or positions you have, one ascribed and one achieved.

9. Explain how social mobility can be both possible and impossible in a society that has gender discrimination and stratification.

Answers

1. Your answer should focus on the goals of political organization—defined as the way a society maintains order internally and manages affairs externally—and explain some of the various ways that power relations are relevant anthropological issues.

• All societies use a set of rules of some kind to guide their members.
• Cultural, religious, external—all kinds of values and forces in place.
• Power relations happen between all individuals, and on a broader scale between larger groups (organizations, governments, etc.).
• Anthropological questions can include things like: How is power distributed and used within a society? How do societies regulate the power relations between their own and other groups? Is there a central authority, like a government, which imposes rules and punishes those who break them? Or does the group share the responsibility to make decisions?

See pages 302-304 of your text.

2. The answer should outline what power is before exploring these two kinds and how they differ. It should explain how power stems from inequality, and how each kind exploits a kind of uneven access to resources (whether cultural, economic, or other).

• Coercive—changing someone’s behavior through physical force (or its threat). “A stick.” Example: slavery.
• Persuasive—changing someone’s behavior through argument. “A carrot.” Specifically, a reward (wealth, better status, fulfillment, etc.).
• Neither kind operates without the authority backing up the use of power—whoever is trying to change someone’s behavior, whether coercively or persuasively, needs to have the ability to exercise such power for it to be effective.

See page 303 of your text.

3. This answer requires a definition of a sodality as applied in a real-world scenario of conflict. It also needs an understanding of the differences between bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states, and how conflicts can play out differently in each of these contexts.

• Sodalities are groups that bring people together through common concerns, age, or interests.
• Bands are groups of approximately 50–100 individuals who rely on hunting and gathering as their main means of subsistence. The band’s decentralized power is reinforced by the egalitarian status of the group: no one member has more access to resources or authority than any other.
• A sodality can be used in a band to influence major decisions, since there is no permanent leader. Groups can be formed and reformed based on varying issues and characteristics.
• Tribes are groups with higher population density than bands. They are horticulturalists or pastoralists, living in separate villages spread out over a wide area. Although villages of a single tribe are separate, they are tied to one another by clan membership, their real or fictive kinship, and a common language. Often these strong links can be useful when the tribe needs to come together to solve larger issues. Thus, tribal peoples often unite their villages for a common cause.
• Sodalities, or pan-tribal associations, help bring people with similar interests and goals together across a region. Sodalities could instigate or diffuse conflicts, depending on their purpose.
• A chiefdom is found in more populous societies, in which intensive agriculture is practiced. These pre-industrial societies have a more complex structure, with villages linked together by districts. Due to the complexity and large population, a centralized government is required with formalized leadership. The chief is generally a hereditary office, not an elected one. He (a chief is most often male) comes from the wealthiest families in the chiefdom.
• A chiefdom sodality could be created at any number of power levels in a chiefdom, for example, a group representing the wealthy families and leaders, who may encourage the rest of the group to engage in conflict for beneficial purposes.
• State societies are industrial and heterogeneous, with a strong centralized government. State societies contain the largest populations seen among the different forms of political organization. A state society usually contains diverse groups within its borders.
• A state sodality could also be created at any number of power levels, for example, to organize resistance against the elected leader, or to spur conflict between two sodalities, since states are so heterogeneous.

See pages 306-313 of your text.

4. This answer is flexible depending on your position, but it must be well justified and show an understanding of the definitions involved, their relative strengths and weaknesses, and how they would play out in intergroup conflict.

• Authority is the use of legitimate power. Depending on what kind of society you are leading, you could be elected or have been born into it, etc. What kind of power you have, then, also depends on how you got your position, so be specific in your answer.
• Prestige is a type of social reward that can only be given to a person by others. It refers to the positive reputation or high regard of a person or other entity merited by actions, wealth, authority, or status. This also depends on the society you have chosen and what kind of conflict you would be trying to resolve.
• Warfare is a large-scale endeavor that can be an internal division like civil war or can be declared on another society/nation. The goals of war are much larger in that one side attempts to kill as many people or destroy as much property as possible until the other side surrenders. While industrialized nations may go to war over ideological issues, they often fight over natural resources such as land, water, or raw materials. War also arises when other methods of conflict resolution have failed, such as diplomacy or economic sanctions.

See pages 285–286, 300–301 of your text.

5. This answer can be justified either way, but generally leans toward the answer of internalized controls. However, a case could be made for external controls if argued correctly. Regardless, the answer must show competent understanding of how all four components would operate in their respective combinations.

• Shame cultures are those in which conformity to social expectations stems from wanting to live up to others’ expectations. The criticism of others, especially those of higher social status, is to be avoided at all costs.
• Guilt cultures focus on one’s own sense of right and wrong and the punishment that can result from breaking the rules. Members suffer emotionally due to failing to meet their own expectations rather than those of others.
• Both guilt and shame operate to some extent in most societies as internalized controls to keep people from transgressing social norms.
• Both guilt and shame operate to some extent in most societies as internalized controls to keep people from transgressing social norms..
• Externalized controls are imposed from the outside. Rules regulate behavior by encouraging conformity to social norms. External controls vary in degree from community gossip to the death sentence.

See pages 303-306 of your text.

6. This answer should be fairly straightforward, demonstrating the definitions of each category and understanding which have centralized governments. Summarily: bands do not, tribes do not, chiefdoms do, states do. Complicating factors in the advantages and disadvantages include: how leaders are chosen, bureaucracy, authority, power, etc.

See pages 307-313 of your text.

7. Social stratification, or the ranking of members of a society into a hierarchy, is not a natural feature of social organization. This means that power relations, since they are based on unequal access to various resources, are key components of social stratification. Societies that stratify can do this in a variety of ways, which then influences what kind of power relations can be employed.

This answer should include some of the following definitions and terms: coercive power, persuasive power, guilt/shame, external controls, internal controls, social mobility, caste systems, class systems, leadership, centralized government, decentralized governance, authority, prestige, sanctions.

See pages 313-316 of your text.

8. This answer depends on your context but should define each and explain why your choices fit each.

• Ascribed statuses are based on innate/unchanging factors, such as what family you were born into. They often occur in caste systems.
• Achieved statuses are based on personal actions, such as work and opportunity. They require a system that allows some form of social mobility/class stratification.

See page 313-314 of your text.

9. This answer requires perspective to see how gender discrimination and stratification can both provide and forbid social mobility, depending on who it is that wants to be socially mobile. It should include definitions for all the relevant terms.

• Social mobility is the ability to move upward within the system. Stratified societies can be class based or caste based, with the former allowing mobility and the latter not. Thus, if a society is based on class, mobility is possible.
• A society that has stratifications built in along gender lines can be advantageous for the gender that is dominant, allowing or encouraging mobility (whereas restricting it for the minority/suppressed group, usually women).

See pages 313-316 of your text.

1. Which of the following is an example of persuasive power?

• a) Promising someone a coveted position if they keep a secret.
• b) Blackmailing someone when they find out a secret.
• c) Forcing someone to divulge a secret through the threat of violence or other punishments.
• d) Exiling someone who knows your secret.

2. In a uncentralized system, sanctions would be

• a) imposed informally by community members.
• b) externally enforced by governmental agents.
• c) encoded through bureaucratic systems.
• d) dependent on a formal code of oral law.

3. Cultural materialism refers to

• a) when a society begins prioritizing material goods over the well-being of its members.
• b) how a society’s organization is based on environment-specific adaptations.
• c) the different ways societies can be categorized based on their use of natural resources.
• d) how certain societies transition from a barter system to an abstract currency system.

4. Within Service’s four categories, which kind of society would likely practice intensive agriculture, have a complex village structure, and have a centralized government?

• a) A band.
• b) A state.
• c) A tribe.
• d) A chiefdom.

5. Why are band societies not typically socially stratified?

• a) Caste systems require formalized central governments.
• b) Stratification depends on informal leaders who demand tribute.
• c) Band societies only have ascribed status.
• d) One’s differential access to resources happens only when societies settle in one place.

6. The two basic types of social stratification are

• a) population transfer and assimilation.
• b) gender discrimination and gender equality.
• c) class and caste.
• d) sanctions and sodalities.

7. Which action uses the majority of our water supplies across the planet?

• a) Recreational activities.
• b) Sanitation.
• c) Growing food.
• d) Landscaping.

8. Large-scale warfare relies on which factors?

• a) Centralized states and surpluses of food and resources.
• b) Centralized governance and gender stratification.
• c) Decentralized chiefdoms and agriculture.
• d) Decentralized governance and assimilation policies.

9. Social conflict can build to large-scale killings, such as genocides. This is an extreme example of which of the following?

• a) sectarian violence.
• b) raid.
• c) feud.
• d) euphemism.

Answers

1. a

Feedback: Persuasive power relies on changing someone’s behavior through argumentation, using religious or cultural beliefs. Persuasive power offers a reward for compliance (a “carrot”), rather than a threat for non-compliance. This reward may be measurable, such as wealth, or it may be personal, such as increased status, power, or emotional fulfillment.

See page 303.

2. a

Feedback: Uncentralized systems have no central governing body. Therefore, community members impose sanctions on those who break the rules.

See page 307.

3. b

Feedback: Cultural anthropologist Elman Service developed the perspective of cultural materialism to show how a society’s organization is directly related to whatever adaptations are necessary to survive in its environment.

See page 307.

4. d

Feedback: A chiefdom is found in more populous societies, in which intensive agriculture is practiced. These pre-industrial societies have a more complex structure, with villages linked together by districts. Due to the complexity and large population, a centralized government is required with formalized leadership.

See page 310.

5. d

Feedback: Many societies, such as foraging band societies, follow social rules of behavior that are carefully constructed so that individual members do not have more status than others. Cooperation and sharing is built into their daily lives, and resources abound in their environment.

See page 308.

6. c

Feedback: There are two basic types of social stratification: class and caste. Class stratification is based upon differences in wealth and status. Caste, on the other hand, is a hierarchical system based on birth.

See pages 313-314.

7. c

Feedback: Feeding people is a thirsty business. Growing food uses the majority of our water supplies across the planet. It takes massive quantities of water to feed people.

See page 317-318.

8. a

Feedback: Large-scale warfare can’t exist without large-scale societies. Avoiding conflict and confrontation is important in small-scale societies where cooperation is crucial for survival. Large-scale warfare arises with centralized states and surpluses of food and resources.

See pages 318-322.

9. a

Feedback: Large-scale violence along ethnic, religious, or other social organizations is sectarian violence.

See page 319.